D'OOGE 


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GIFT  OF 


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CONCISE 
LATIN   GRAMMAR 


BY 


BENJAMIN  L.  D'OOGE,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  LATIN   IN  THE   MICHIGAN   STATE 
NORMAL  COLLEGE 


Est  modus  in  rebus,  sunt  certi  denique  fines  —  Horace 


GJNN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  •  COLUMBUS  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,  BY  BENJAMIN  L.  D'OOGE 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 

321. 1 


<C6e   igtbenicum   3Prc<< 

GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  the  author  in  preparing  this  book  has  been 
to  provide,  in  as  concise  a  form  as  possible,  a  Latin  grammar 
which  should  be  of  equal  service  to  the  high-school  pupil 
and  to  the  college  undergraduate.  To  meet  the  needs  of 
the  former  the  fundamental  and  essential  facts  of  the  language 
have  been  stated  as  simply  as  possible  and  have  been  given 
due  prominence  on  an  open  page.  Statements  of  secondary 
importance  appear  in  smaller  type  and  all  material  that  would 
be  confusing  to  the  beginner  has  been  relegated  to  footnotes, 
and  these  have  been  reduced  to  a  minimum.  At  the  same  time 
the  scope  of  the  book  is  such  as  to  include  all  that  is  needed 
for  translation  of  authors  usually  read  in  college.  There  is  an 
obvious  advantage  to  the  student  in  using  the  same  grammar 
throughout  his  Latin  course. 

The  needs  of  the  student  have  been  made  the  guiding 
principle  in  the  treatment  of  the  examples.  These  are 
numerous  and  have  been  taken  by  preference  from  the 
portions  of  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Vergil  read  in  secondary 
schools.  Furthermore,  they  have  been  simplified  when  too 
difficult  for  ready  comprehension,  without,  however,  destroying 
their  \^alidity. 

In  the  matter  of  grammatical  nomenclature  a  conservative 
attitude  has  been  taken,  but  such  of  the  new  terms  have  been 
adopted  as  seem  likely  to  win  general  acceptance. 

Versification  has  been  treated  briefly  and  only  the  meters 
used  by  Vergil  and  Ovid  have  been  explained.  Further  treat- 
ment is  rendered  superfluous  by  the  fact  that  college  texts 

iii 

459895 


iv  PREFACE 

of  the  lyric  and  dramatic  poets  now  regularly  include  a  detailed 
discussion  of  the  meters  used  by  their  authors. 

Other  features  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  meet  with  a  favorable 
reception  are  the  introductory  pages  on  the  history  of  the  Latin 
language,  the  brief  and  practical  discussion  of  the  formation  of 
words,  the  paragraphs  devoted  to  Roman  names,  the  frequent 
synopses  of  constructions  in  the  syntax,  and  a  treatment  of 
the  Roman  calendar  somewhat  fuller  than  is  found  in  similar 
manuals.  The  rules  for  the  order  of  words  depart  in  some 
respects  from  doctrines  previously  held,  and  present  the  results, 
as  far  as  they  seem  well  established,  of  recent  investigations 
in  this  field  of  research. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  to  Professor  P.  F.  O'Brien, 
of  St.  Mary's  College,  Winona,  Minnesota,  for  his  careful 
revision  of  the  proof  and  for  many  valuable  suggestions  and 
much  useful  criticism. 

BENJAMIN  L.  D'OOGE 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

Thk  Latin  Language xiii 

PART  I.    SOUNDS 

The  Alphabet i 

Classification  of  Sounds 2 

Orthography  3 

Pronunciation 4 

Syllables    5 

Quantity 6 

Quantity  of  Syllables 7 

Quantity  of  Vowels 8 

Accent     8 

Phonetic  Changes    ..." 10 

Changes  in  Vowels 10 

Changes  in  Consonants 12 

Vowel  Gradation  or  Ablaut 13 

PART  IL    FORMS 

Parts  of  Speech 15 

Inflections 15 

Declension  and  Conjugation 15 

Roots 15 

Stems 16 

Bases 16 

Gender 16 

Person 17 

Number 18 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Nouns  and  their  Declension i8 

General  Rules  of  Declension     . 20 

First  Declension 20 

Second  Declension 23 

Third  Declension 27 

Consonant  Stems 27 

I-Stems 32 

Irregular  Nouns 37 

Greek  Nouns 38 

Rules  of  Gender 39 

Fourth  Declension 41 

Fifth  Declension 42 

Defective  Nouns 44 

Variable  Nouns 47 

Names  of  Persons 49 

Adjectives  and  their  Declension 51 

First  and  Second  Declensions 51 

Third  Declension    . 54 

Comparison 60 

Numerals 64 

Pronouns  AND  their  Declension 71 

Personal  Pronouns 71 

Reflexive  Pronouns 72 

Possessive  Pronominal  Adjectives 73 

Demonstrative  Pronouns 74 

The  Intensive  Pronoun 76 

Relative  Pronouns 76 

Interrogative  Pronouns 'j'j 

Indefinite  Pronouns 78 

Conjugation  of  Verbs .  80 

Conjugation 80 

The  Three  Tense  Systems 81 

Principal  Parts 83 

Personal  Endings 84 

Formation  of  the  Verb  Stems 85 

Formation  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  ........  90 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

Formation  of  the  Non-Modal  Verb  Forms 94 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  sum 96 

Conjugation  of  the  Regular  Verbs 98 

Verbs  in -io  of  the  Third  Conjugation no 

Deponent  Verbs 112 

The  Periphrastic  Conjugations 114 

Irregular  Verbs 115 

Defective  Verbs 125 

Impersonal  Verbs 127 

List  of  Verbs 128 

Particles 140 

Adverbs 140 

Prepositions 142 

Conjunctions 144 

Interjections 144 

Formation  of  Words 145 

Derivation  of  Nouns 145 

Derivation  of  Adjectives 1 49 

Derivation  of  Verbs 153 

Compounds 154 

PART  III.    SYNTAX 

The  Sentence. 157 

Syntax  of  Nouns 160 

Predicate  Nouns 160 

Appositives 161 

Nominative  Case 163 

Vocative  Case 164 

Genitive  Case 164 

Possessive  Genitive 166 

Explanatory  Genitive 168 

Genitive  of  the  Charge 1 68 

Genitive  of  Description 1 68 

Genitive  of  Measure 169 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Genitive  of  Indefinite  Value     . 169 

Genitive  of  the  Whole  (Partitive  Genitive) 1 69 

Genitive  of  Material 171 

Genitive  with  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty  or  Want .     .     .  171 

Genitive  with  Adjectives  denoting  Similarity  or  Connection    .  172 

Genitive  with  refert  and  interest 172 

Genitive  with  Nouns  expressing  Action  or  Feeling   .     .     .     .  1 74 

Genitive  of  Application 1 74 

Genitive  with  Adjectives  expressing  Action  or  Feeling  .     .     .  1 74 

Genitive  with  Certain  Verbs 175 

Dative  Case 177 

Indirect  Object  with  Transitive  Verbs 1 78 

Indirect  Object  with  Intransitive  Verbs 180 

Indirect  Object  with  Compound  Verbs 182 

Dative  of  Reference 183 

Dative  of  Possession .185 

Dative  of  Apparent  Agent 185 

Dative  of  Purpose 186 

Dative  with  Adjectives 187 

Accusative  Case 188 

Direct  Object 189 

Accusative  of  Kindred  Meaning  (Cognate  Accusative)   .     .     .  191 

Direct  Object  and  Secondary  Object 192 

Direct  Object  and  Adjunct  Accusative 193 

Subject  of  an  Infinitive 194 

Accusative  of  Extent  and  Duration 194 

Accusative  of  Respect 196 

Accusative  of  the  Place  Whither .  1 96 

Accusative  of  Exclamation 1 98 

Idiomatic  Uses  . ' 1 98 

Ablative  Case 199 

Uses  of  the  True  Ablative 1 99 

Ablative  of  Separation 199 

Ablative  of  the  Place  Whence 200 

Ablative  of  Comparison 202 

Ablative  of  Origin     ......._ 203 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

Ablative  of  Material 203 

Ablative  of  Agent 204 

Instrumental  Uses  of  the  Ablative 205 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment 205 

Ablative  of  Attendant  Circumstance 205 

Ablative  of  Accordance 205 

Ablative  of  Manner 206 

Ablative  of  Cause  or  Reason 206 

Ablative  of  Description  or  Quality 207 

Ablative  of  Means 208 

Ablative  of  Price  or  Value 209 

Ablative  of  the  Way  by  Which 210 

Ablative  of  the  Measure  of  Difference 211 

Ablative  of  Respect 211 

Ablative  Absolute 212 

Locative  Uses  of  the  Ablative 214 

Ablative  of  the  Place  Where 214 

Ablative  of  Time 215 

Syntax  of  Adjectives 217 

Agreement 217 

Adjectives  used  as  Nouns 219 

Adjectives  used  as  Adverbs 220 

Comparatives  and  Superlatives 221 

Syntax  of  Pronouns 222 

Personal  Pronouns 222 

Reflexive  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 223 

Possessive  Pronominal  Adjectives 225 

Demonstrative  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 226 

The  Intensive  Pronoun  ipse 229 

Relative  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 230 

Interrogative  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 233 

Indefinite  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 234 

Pronominal  Adjectives  (alius,  alter,  ceteri,  reliqui) 237 

Syntax  of  Adverbs 238 

Special  Adverbs  and  their  Uses 239 

Negative  Adverbs 24 1 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Syntax  of  Conjunctions 242 

Copulative  Conjunctions 242 

Disjunctive  Conjunctions 244 

Adversative  Conjunctions 245 

Causal  Conjunctions 246 

Inferential  Conjunctions 247 

Questions  and  Answers 247 

Syntax  of  Verbs 251 

Agreement 251 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Independent  Sentences 253 

Indicative  Mood 253 

Tenses  of  the  Indicative 253 

Subjunctive  Mood 259 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive 259 

Subjunctive  in  Independent  Sentences 260 

Volitive  Subjunctive * 260 

Optative  Subjunctive 263 

Potential  Subjunctive 264 

Imperative  Mood 265 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Subordinate  Clauses 266 

Sequence  of  Tenses 266 

Development  of  Subordinate  Clauses 271 

Subjunctive  Clauses  of  Purpose 273 

Adverbial  Clauses  of  Purpose 273 

Relative  Clauses  of  Purpose 274 

Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose 275 

Subjunctive  Clauses  of  Description  or  Characteristic       .     .     .     .279 

Subjunctive  Clauses  of  Consequence  or  Result 281 

Adverbial  Clauses  of  Result 282 

Relative  Clauses  of  Result 283 

Substantive  Clauses  of  Result 283 

Temporal  Clauses 285 

Temporal  Clauses  with  postquam,  ubi,  ut,  etc 285 

Temporal  Clauses  with  cum 286 

Cum  Causal 288 

Cum  Concessive 289 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

Temporal  Clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam      ....  290 

Temporal  Clauses  with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  and  quam  diu  .     .  292 

Causal  Clauses  introduced  by  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  and  quand5    .  293 

Conditional  Sentences 295 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison 304 

Concessive  Clauses 304 

Clauses  of  Proviso 306 

Indirect  Questions 306 

Quod  Clauses  of  Fact       308 

Verbal  Nouns  and  Adjectives 310 

Infinitive 310 

Participles 317 

(ierund  and  Gerundive 322 

Supine 325 

Indirect  Discourse 326 

Principal  Clauses 327 

Subordinate  Clauses 329 

Conditional  Sentences 332 

Implied  Indirect  Discourse 334 

Subjunctive  by  Attraction                     334 

The  Order  of  Words 335 

PART  IV.    VERSIFICATION 

Quantity 347 

Meters  and  Verse  For.ms 351 

Dactylic  Verse 355 

APPENDIX 

The  Roman  Calendar 359 

Index 365 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  LATIN  LANGUAGE 

The  Italic  Dialects.  Latin,  the  language  of  the  Latins,  is 
one  of  several  closely  related  dialects  that  constitute  the  Italic 
branch  of  the  Indo-European  parent  speech.  Some  of  these 
dialects,  particularly  the  Umbrian  and  the  Oscan,  were  origi- 
nally more  important  and  more  widely  extended  than  Latin  ;  but 
in  time  the  political  supremacy  of  Rome,  the  chief  town  of  the 
latins,  made  Latin  the  language  not  only  of  all  Italy  but  of 
most  of  the  Roman  world. 

Ancient  Latium.  The  Latins  inhabited  Latium,  originally 
an  area  of  about  twenty-five  square  miles  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber.  By  about  300  B.C.,  however,  Rome  had  so  broadened 
her  sway  that  Latium  included  the  region  from  a  little  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber  on  the  north  to  Sinuessa  on  the  south, 
and  extended  inland  to  the  first  main  chain  of  the  Apennines. 
Yet  even  in  this  small  district  some  of  the  subjugated  tribes  con- 
tinued to  use  their  native  dialects  for  at  least  a  century  longer, 
though  Latin  was  the  official  language. 

Periods  of  Latin.  No  living  language  is  ever  stationary, 
and  Latin  underwent  many  changes  in  the  course  of  its  long 
history.    We  may  distinguish  the  following  six  periods : 

1.  Preliterary  Latin,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  begin- 
nings of  literature  at  Rome  (about  240  b.c). 

2.  Early  Latin,  from  the  beginnings  of  literature  to  the  date 
of  Cicero's  first  extant  oration  (240-81  e.g.). 

This  period  includes  such  writers  as  Livius  Andronicus, 
Naevius,  Gato  the  Elder,  Plautus,  and  Terence. 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

3.  Classical  Latin,  or  the  Latin  of  the  Golden  Age,  from 
Cicero's  first  extant  oration  to  the  death  of  Augustus  (81  b.c. 
-A.D.  14). 

This  period  includes  most  of  the  authors  read  at  school 
and  college. 

4.  Latin  of  the  Silver  Age,  from  the  death  of  Augustus 
(A.D.  14)  to  about  A.D.  170. 

This  period  includes  such  authors  as  Phaedrus,  Seneca, 
Pliny  the  Elder,  Pliny  the  Younger,  Tacitus,  Ouintilian,  Juvenal, 
Persius,  and  Martial. 

5.  Late  Latin,  from  about  a.d.  170  to  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire  in  a.d.  476. 

6.  Medieval  Latin,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  Latin  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Development  of  Latin.  A  study  of  the  development  of 
Latin  during  these  six  periods  is  naturally  based  on  surviving 
specimens  of  the  language  itself.  Its  earliest  remains  are  in 
the  form  of  inscriptions.  The  oldest  inscription  on  metal  is 
that  on  the  golden  fibula  of  Praeneste ;  the  oldest  on  stone 
is  that  found  in  1899,  carved  on  the  four  sides  of  a  rectan- 
gular pillar  of  tufa  lying  about  five  feet  below  the  pavement 
of  the  Roman  Forum.  Both  are  believed  to  be  earlier  than 
the  fifth  century  b.c.  Specimens  of  Latin  earlier  than  the 
third  century  e.g.  are  exceedingly  scanty,  but  soon  after  that 
time  they  become  more  numerous,  and,  after  the  earliest  writers 
begin  their  labors  (240  b.c),  materials  are  not  lacking  for 
constructing  a  history  of  the  language.    , 

Language  rarely  has  a  regular  and  uniform  growth.  There 
are  many  influences  that  may  affect  its  character  and  determine 
its  course  of  development.  Chief  among  these  are  long  and 
intimate  association  with  a  foreign  tongue,  the  political  supe- 
riority or  inferiority  of  the  people  using  the  language,  the 
degree  of  culture  which  they  possess,  and  the  use  to  which 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

the  language  is  put.    How  these  influences  affected  the  Latin 
language  is  briefly  discussed  in  the  following  sections  : 

I.  Popular  Latin  and  Literary  Latin.  Preliterary  Latin 
(prisca  Latinitas),  the  language  of  early  Latium,  was  spoken 
with  comparatively  little  difference  by  all  classes  of  society ; 
but  with  the  birth  of  literature  a  distinction  began.  The  speech 
of  the  common  people  (sermo  plebeius)  continued  free  and 
untrammeled,  but  the  language  of  the  literary  classes  was  arti- 
ficially developed  on  Greek  models.  The  best  examples  of 
early  popular  Latin  are  found  in  the  plays  of  Plautus,  repre- 
senting, as  they  do,  the  life  of  the  common  people.  A  ruder 
form  of  popular  speech  was  that  used  in  the  country  districts, 
hence  called  lingua  rustica.  On  this  Cato^s  "  De  Agri  Cultura  " 
is  our  only  source  of  information.  The  development  of  Latin 
during  the  first  two  periods,  then,  may  be  represented  by  the 
diagram  below : 

Literary  Latin 

Preliterary  Latin 

Prisca  Latinitas    \  Sermo  plebeius 

Popular  Latin     / 

\     Lingua  riistica 


As  time  went  on  the  difference  between  the  popular  and 
literary  forms  of  expression  became  greater  and  greater,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  influence  of  the  cultivated  language 
filtered  down  through  the  lower  grades  of  society  and  that,  on 
the  other  hand,  many  plebeian  forms  and  constructions  found 
their  way  into  cultivated  speech.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
classical  period,  literary  Latin,  now  known  as  the  sermC  urbanus, 
had  become  so  polished  and  formal,  and  had  suffered  such 
proportionate  loss  of  vitality,  and  the  sermS  plebeius  had  diverged 
so  far  from  the  recognized  standard,  that  there  developed 
between  the  two  a  sort  of  compromise  known  as  the  sermS  coti- 
dianus,  which  provided  a  free  and  easy  means  of  comrhunication 


XVI  INTRODUCTION 

among  all  classes,  and  which  even  the  educated  doubtless 
used  among  intimates.  Cicero's  letters  are  the  best  example 
of  the  sermo  cotidianus  of  the  upper  classes  of  his  day,  and  the 
"  Cena  Trimalchionis  "  of  Petronius  of  the  period  preceding 
Hadrian  (a.d.  117).  Further,  along  with  the  three  varieties  of 
Latin  used  at  Rome  as  described  above,  probably  the  lingua 
rustica  was  still  spoken  in  the  country  districts.  These  forms  of 
speech  continued  to  develop  more  or  less  independently  until 
the  close  of  the  fifth  period,  marked  by  the  downfall  of  the 
Western  Empire  (a.d.  476).  With  the  end  of  literary  activity  at 
Rome,  literary  Latin  disappeared,  and  all  the  forms  of  speech 
merged  in  one,  sometimes  called  the  lingua  Romana,  which  was 
the  common  means  of  communication  throughout  the  Western 
world  until  the  rise  of  the  modern  languages.  The  following 
diagram  roughly  indicates  the  course  of  the  development  of 
Latin  from  the  beginning  of  the  classical  period  (81  b.c.)  to 
the  close  of  the  seventh  century  of  our  era : 


Literary  Latin  SermS  urbanus 

Sermo  cotidianus 


\ 


Popular  Latin 


< 


Latin  unity  after  a.  d.  476 
Sermo  plebeius      yj         Lingua  R5mana 

Lingua  rustica 


II.  Proviiicial  Latin,  Rome  always  imposed  her  speech  as 
well  as  her  customs  upon  the  nations  which  she  subjugated, 
and  Latin  was  the  official  language  of  the  provinces.  The 
Romans  dwelling  in  the  provinces  were,  as  a  rule,  not  of  the 
cultivated  classes,  but  soldiers  and  traders,  speaking  popular 
Latin,  that  is,  the  sermO  plebeius  or  lingua  rustica.  And  it  was 
from  these  that  the  native  inhabitants  learned  Latin.  Since 
popular  Latin  was  constantly  changing,  provinces  which  were 


INTRODUCTION  xvri 

acquired  at  different  times  learned  different  kinds  of  Latin 
from  the  conquerors.  For  example,  the  Latin  brought  to  Gaul 
by  Caesar's  legions  in  the  years  58-50  b.c.  differed  much  from 
that  brought  to  North  Africa  a  century  earlier  by  the  soldiers 
of  the  younger  Scipio.  Another  factor  that  caused  variation 
was  the  difference  in  the  native  substratum.  Latin  spoken  by  a 
Gaul  would,  of  course,  not  be  quite  the  same  as  that  spoken 
by  a  Spaniard  or  a  German.  Hence  the  Latin  of  the  provinces 
was  by  no  means  homogeneous,  but  there  was  an  increasing 
divergence  from  the  accepted  standard,  especially  in  forms, 
vocabulary,  and  pronunciation. 

III.  The  Romatice  Languages.  It  was  the  progressive  de- 
velopment of  the  variations  in  provincial  Latin  that  led  in 
time  to  the  formation  of  a  number  of  different  languages, 
which,  because  of  their  origin  in  the  lingua  Romana,  are  known 
as  the  Romance  languages.  Of  these  the  most  important  are 
Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French.  The  process  of 
development  was  slow  and  gradual,  and  for  several  centuries 
these  provincial  languages,  though  differing  in  minor  points, 
remained  substantially  Latin.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to 
draw  a  sharp  line  of  division  between  Latin  and  its  descend- 
ants. On  practical  grounds,  however,  such  a  line  is  convenient 
and  has  been  fixed  at  about  a.  d.  7CX).  Consequently,  at  that 
time  we  may  say  that  Latin  unity  ceased  and  the  Romance 
languages  began  their  independent  existence. 


Latin  unity  after  a.  d.  476 
Lingua  Romana 


XVlll 


INTRODUCTION 


The  following  illustration,  taken  from  Brunot's  "  Histoire 
de  la  langue  fran^aise,"  shows  in  a  striking  manner  the  un- 
broken line  of  descent  from  classic  Latin  to  modern  French. 
In  the  third  column  is  shown  the  opening  sentence  of  the 
Oath  of  Strasburg,  a.d.  842.  In  the  other  columns  is  given  the 
form  which  the  words  would  have  assumed  at  different  periods.^ 


Classic  Latin 
Per  Dei  amorem  et 
per  christian!  populi 
et  nostram  communem 
salutem,  ab  hac  die, 
quantum  Deus  scire  et 
posse  mihi  dat,  servabo 
hunc  meum  fratrem 
Carolum. 


Spoken  Latin,  Sev- 
enth Century 

Por  deo  amore  et 
por  chrestyano  pob(o)- 
lo  et  nostro  comune 
salvamento,  de  esto  die 
en  avante,  en  quanto 
Deos  sabere  et  podere 
me  donat,  sic  salvarayo 
eo  eccesto  meon  fradre 
Karlo. 


Actual  Text  of 
Oath  (a.  d.  842) 

Pro  deo  amur  et 
pro  christian  poblo  et 
nostro  commun  salva- 
ment,  dist  di  en  avant, 
in  quant  Deus  savir  et 
podir  me  dunat,  si 
salvarai  eo  cist  meon 
fradre  Karlo, 


French,  Eleventh 
Century 

Por  dieu  amor  et 
por  del  crestiien  poeple 
et  nostre  comun  salve- 
ment,  de  cest  jorn  en 
avant,  quant  que  Dieus 
saveir  et  podeir  me 
donet,  si  salverai  jo  cest 
mien  fredre  Charlon. 


French,  Fifteenth 
Century 

Pour  I'amour  Dieu 
et  pour  le  sauvement  du 
chrestien  peuple  et  le 
nostre  commun,  de  cest 
jour  en  avant,  quant 
que  Dieu  savoir  et  pou- 
voir  me  done,  si  sau- 
verai  je  cest  mien  frere 
Charle. 


Modern  French 
Pour  I'amour  de 
Dieu  et  pour  le  salut 
commun  du  peuple 
Chretien  et  le  n6tre,  k 
partir  de  ce  jour,  autant 
que  Dieu  m'en  donne 
le  savoir  et  le  pouvoir, 
je  soutiendrai  mon  fr^re 
Charles.  • 


1  The  "  classic  Latin  "  and  "  spoken  Latin  "  are,  of  course,  mere  attempts 
to  turn  the  words  of  the  Oath  into  the  earlier  language  without  regard  to 
differences  of  idiom. 


LATIN    GRAMMAR 


1.  Latin  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  and  usages  of  the 
Latin  language.  In  this  book  the  discussion  is  limited  mainly 
to  the  Classical  Period  or  Golden  Age  (8i  b.c.-a.d.  14),  and 
comprises  four  parts  :  Sounds,  Forms,  Syntax,  and  Versification. 

PART   I.     SOUNDS 

THE  ALPHABET 

2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  except 
that  it  lacks  the  characters  j,  u,  and  w. 

The  Latin  alphabet  is  derived  from  a  form  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
known  as  the  Chalcidic,  which  was  brought  to  Italy  by  Greek  colonists 
as  early  as  the  ninth  century  B.C.  It  originally  consisted  of  capital 
letters  only.  The  small  letters,  or  cursives,  were  not  evolved  until 
the  eighth  century  of  our  era. 

a.  C  had  originally  the  value  of  g,  and  retained  that  value  in  the 
abbreviation  C.  for  Gains  and  Cn.  for  Gnaeus.  Later  it  was  used  to 
express  the  sound  of  k,  and  k  disappeared,  except  before  a  in  a  few 
words  :  as,  Kalendae,  Karthago. 

b.  I  and  v  were  used  both  as  vowels  and  as  consonants.  The 
character  j,  'representing  consonant  i,  dates  from  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  the  character  u,  representing  vowel  v,  from  the  tenth. 

In  this  book,  u  is  used  for  vowel  v,  v  for  consonant  v,  and  i  is 
used  for  both  vowel  and  consonant  i :  as,  iudicium,  veniO,  iuventus. 

c.  The  Greek  letters  v  {^upsi/on)  and  1^  {zeta)  were  added  to  the 
Latin  alphabet  as  y  and  z  in  the  first  century  b.c.,  and  were  used 
only  in  words  borrowed  from  Greek  or  in  Greek  proper  names. 


2  '  y-  %/     SOUNDS 

''classification  of  sounds 

3.  The  sounds  of  language  are  either  Vowels  or  Consonants. 
In  pronouncing  a  vowel,  there  is  an  uninterrupted  flow  of 

vocal  sound ;  in  pronouncing  a  consonant,  the  sound  is  more 
or  less  obstructed. 

4.  The  simple  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  The  remaining 
letters  represent  consonants. 

5.  The  diphthongs  in  common  use  are  ae,  oe,  and  au. 

Eu  and  ui  occur  in  a  few  words,  and,  in  early  Latin,  ai,  ei,  oi,  ou. 

6.  Consonants  are  either  voiced  {sonajit)  or  voiceless  {surd). 
Voiced  consonants  are  pronounced  with  a  vibration  of  the  vocal 
chords.    Voiceless  consonants  lack  this  vibration. 

Thus,  d  in  den  is  voiced  ;  t  in  teji  is  voiceless. 

a.  The  voiced  consonants  are  b,  d,  g,  consonant  i,  1,  m,  n,  r,  v. 

b.  The  voiceless  consonants  are  c,  f,  h,  k,  p,  q,  s,  t,  x. 

7.  Consonants  are  divided,  according  to  the  organs  deter- 
mining their  peculiar  sound,  into  labials,  dentals,  and  palatals. 

a.  Labials  are  pronounced  with  the  lips  :  as,  p,  b, 

b.  Dentals  (sometimes  called  Linguals)  are  pronounced  with  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  touching  or  approaching  the  upper  front  teeth :  as,  t,  d. 

c.  Palatals  are  pronounced  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue 
touching  or  approaching  the  palate :  as,  k,  g. 

8.  Consonants  are  classified,  according  to  the  way  in  which 
the  breath  is  used,  as  mutes,  nasals,  liquids,  and  spirants. 

a.  Mutes  (speechless  letters).  In  pronouncing  a  mute  the  breath, 
as  it  passes  through  the  mouth,  is  checked  for  an  instant  and  then 
allowed  to  escape  explosively  :  as,  p,  t. 

b.  Nasals.  In  pronouncing  a  nasal  the  mouth  is  closed  and  the 
breath  passes  through  the  nose :  as,  m,  n. 


ORTHOGRAPHY  3 

c.  Liquids.   In  pronouncing  a  liquid  the  breath  flows  freely  through 
the  mouth :  as,  1,  r. 

d.  Spirants  or  Fricatives.    In  pronouncing  a  spirant  the  breath 
passes  continuously  through  the  mouth  with  audible  friction :  as,  8,  f. 

9.  The  vowels  i  and  u  when  used  as  consonants  (§  2.b)  so 
far  retain  their  vocalic  character  that  they  are  called  semivowels. 

10.  The  following  table  shows  the  cortsonants  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  preceding  sections  (§§  6-9): 


Lahial 

Dental 

Palatal 

-.  ^     [voiced 
Mutes -^      .    , 

t  voiceless 

Nasals,  voiced 

Liquids,  voiced 

Spirants,  voiceless 

Semivowels,  voiced 

b 

P 
m 

f 

V 

d 

t 
n 

I  r 
s 

g 

c,  k,  q 

n  (before  c,  g,  q) 

h 

consonant  i 

X  (=  cs)  is  called  a  double  consonant. 

ORTHOGRAPHY 

11.  The  spelling  of  Latin  varied  considerably  at  different 
periods.  Our  knowledge  rests  mainly  upon  inscriptions  for  the 
earlier  periods  ;  and  to  this  testimony  is  added,  for  the  later 
periods,  the  statements  of  the  Latin  grammarians. 

12.  The  spelling  of  the  first  century  of  our  era  is  fairly  uni- 
form, and  is  commonly  used  in  modern  editions  of  the  classics. 
Some  of  the  most  important  changes  from  the  earlier  spelling 
are  the  following : 

a.  After  v  or  u  an  earlier  0  was  changed  to  u.  Thus,  earlier  voltus, 
servos,  mortuos,  became  vultus,  servus,  mortuus. 

b.  Earlier  quo  became  cu  in  the  Augustan  age,  and  this,  in  turn, 
became  quu  in  the  second  century  of  our  era.    The  spelling  quu  is 


4  PRONUNCIATION 

that  adopted  in  most  modem  editions.    Thus,  earlier  equos  became 
ecus,  then  equus ;  sequontur  became  secuntur,  then  sequuntur. 

Note.  Earlier  quom  became  cum,  but  did  not  change  to  quum  till  the 
sixth  century  of  our  era. 

c.  Similarly,  nguo  was  changed  first  to  ngu,  then  to  nguu.  Thus, 
original  exstinguont  became  exstingunt,  later  exstinguunt. 

d.  Before  labials  u  became  i  in  the  Augustan  age.  This  change  is 
regular  in  unaccented  syllables  and  occurs  in  some  that  are  accented. 
Thus,  earlier  maxumus,  lacruma,  fructubus,  pontufex,  lubet,  became 
maximus,  lacrima,  fructibus,  pontifex,  libet. 

PRONUNCIATION 

13.  Latin,  in  the  classical  period,  had  approximately  the 
following  sounds  : 

14.  Sounds  of  the  Vowels. 

a  as  m  father  S  as  the  first  a  in  aha 

e  as  ^  mfafe  €  as  in  pet 

i  as  in  machine  i  as  in  bit 

5  as  in  botie  6  as  in  obey 

u  as  00  in  boot  u  as  mfull,  or  as  oo  mfoot 

y  between  u  and  i  (French  //  or  German  ii) 

15.  Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs.  In  diphthongs  (two-vowel 
sounds)  both  vowels  are  heard  in  a  single  syllable. 

ae  as  ai  in  aisle  eu  as  e'ob  (a  short  e  followed  by  a 
au  as  ou  in  out  short  u),  almost  like  ew  in  new 

ei  as  in  eight  ui  as  ob't  (a  short  u  followed  by  a 

06  as  oi  in  toil  short  i),  almost  like  wi  in  will 

16.  Sounds  of  the  Consonants.  The  consonants  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  English,  except  that  — 

c  is  always  like  c  in  cat,  never  as  in  cent. 

g  is  always  like  g  in  get,  never  as  in  gem. 

i  consonant  is  always  like  y  in  yes. 

n  before  c,  q,  or  g  is  like  ng  in  sing  (compare  ?i  in  anchor). 


I 


SYLLABLES  5 

qu,  gu,  and  sometimes  su,  before  a  vowel  have  the  sounds  of  ^7v, 
gWy  and  sw.   Here  u  stands  for  consonant  v  and  is  not  a  vowel, 
r  is  trilled  as  in  French  or  Italian. 
8  is  like  s  in  sea,  never  as  in  ease. 
t  is  always  like  /  in  native,  never  as  in  nation. 
V  is  like  7v  in  wine,  never  as  in  vine. 

X  has  the  value  of  two  consonants  (cs)  and  is  like  x  in  extract. 
z  medial  is  like  dz  in  adze ;  z  initial  probably  like  English  z. 
bs  is  like/j,  and  bt  like//. 

17.  The  Greek  combinations  ph,  th,  eh,  known  as  aspirates,  were 
in  that  language  equivalent  to  p,  t,  k,  respectively,  followed  by  a  rough 
breathing  or  aspirate  h  (as  in  up-hill,  hot-house,  i?ik-horn).  In  Latin 
they  are  confined  almost  exclusively  to  words  of  Greek  derivation, 
and  in  the  classical  period  were  probably  sounded  like  simple  p,  t,  c. 

18.  Between  consonant  i  and  a  preceding  a,  e,  0,  or  u  a  vowel  i 
was  developed,  thus  producing  diphthong  ai,  ei,  etc.,  before  the  con- 
sonant i.  In  such  cases,  however,  but  one  i  was  written :  as,  aiO  for 
ai-i6,  maius  for  mai-ius. 

19.  In  compounds  iaciO  was  spelled  -iciO  (not  -iiciO) :  as,  coniciQ, 
pronounced  coniiciO  (con-yidd,  consonant  i  preceding  vowel  i). 

20.  Doubled  letters,  as  tt,  pp,  11,  should  be  pronounced  with  a  slight 
pause  between  the  two  articulations.  Thus,  pronounce  tt  as  in  rat- 
trap,  not  as  in  rattle ;  pp  as  in  hop-pole,  not  as  in  upper. 

SYLLABLES 

21.  A  Latin  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  vowels  and 
diphthongs.  Thus,  aes-ta-te  has  three  syllables,  d6-lu-de-re  has  four. 

22.  Words  are  divided  into  syllables  as  follows : 

a.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels  is  pronounced  with  the 
following  vowel :  as,  a-mfi-bi-lis,  me-mo-ri-a,  a-best,  pe-r6-git. 

Note.  The  combination  qu  is  treated  as  a  single  consonant :  as,  e-quus. 
The  double  consonant  x  (=  cs)  is  joined  sometimes  with  the  preceding, 
sometimes  with  the  following,  vowel :  auz-it  or  au-xit. 


6  QUANTITY 

6.  A  mute  and  a  liquid  are  pronounced  with  the  following  vowel 
except  in  the  case  of  prepositional  compounds :  as,  pu-blicus,  a-gri ; 
but  ob-litus,  ab-rumpo. 

Note.  In  poetry  when  a  long  syllable  (cf.  §  29)  is  needed,  the  mute  may 
in  all  cases  be  joined  with  the  preceding  vowel :  as,  ag-ri, 

c.  In  all  other  combinations  of  consonants  the  last  of  the  group  is 
pronounced  with  the  following  vowel:  as,  mag-nus,  il-le,  sanc-tus, 
su-bac-tus,  hos-pes,  sump-tus. 

Note.  In  dividing  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line  of  writing  or  printing, 
prepositional  compounds  are  separated  into  their  component  parts:  as, 
ab-est,  per-€git,  sub-actus,  circum-sto. 

23.  A  syllable  ending  in  a  consonant  is  called  closed^  one 
ending  in  a  vowel  or  dipththong,  open.  Thus,  the  first  syllable 
of  re-git  is  open,  the  second  closed. 

24.  The  last  syllable  of  a  word  is  called  the  ultima ;  the 
next  to  the  last,  the  pennlt ;  that  before  the  penult,  the  ante- 
penult. Thus,  amantur  consists  of  a-  (antepenult),  -man-  (penult), 
-tur  (ultima). 

QUANTITY 

25.  The  quantity  ^  of  a  vowel  or  a  syllable  is  the  time 
occupied  in  pronouncing  it.  There  are  two  degrees  of  quantity, 
lo7tg  and  short. 

Note.  Technically,  a  long  vowel  or  syllable  is  regarded  as  having  twice 
the  length  (in  time)  of  a  short  one.  Correct  pronunciation,  accent,  and 
the  scansion  of  verse  depend  upon  the  proper  observance  of  quantity. 

26.  A  vowel  or  a  syllable  that  may  be  either  long  or  short 
in  quantity  is  said  to  be  common . 

'  The  rules  for  quantity  are  given  with  greater  detail  under  Versification. 
Only  a  few  of  the  leading  facts  are  here  stated. 


QUANTITY  7 

I.   QUANTITY  OF  SYLLABLES 

27.  A  syllable  is  long  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel  or  a  diph- 
thong (as,  cu-r5,  poe-nae,  aes-ta-te)  or  if  it  ends  in  a  consonant 
which  is  followed  by  another  consonant  (as,  cor-pus,  mag-nus).^ 

In  the  former  case  it  is  said  to  be  long  by  nature ;  in  the 
latter,  lo7ig  by  position. 

Note.  The  vowel  in  a  long  syllable  may  be  either  long  or  short  and 
should  be  pronounced  accordingly.  Thus,  in  ter-ra  the  first  syllable  is  long, 
but  the  vowel  is  short.  In  words  like  saxum  the  first  syllable  is  long 
because  x  has  the  value  of  two  consonants  (§  1 6). 

28.  A  syllable  is  short  if  it  ends  in  a  short  vowel :  as,  a-mor, 
pi-gri. 

29.  A  syllable  is  common  if  its  vowel  is  short  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  (1  or  r). 

Note.  The  quantity  here  depends  upon  the  way  in  which  the  word  is 
divided  into  syllables.  Thus,  in  pig-ri  the  first  syllable  ends  in  a  conso- 
nant and  is  long;  but  in  pi-gri  the  first  syllable  ends  in  a  short  vowel 
and  is  short.  In  prose  the  latter  is  the  regular  division  (§  22.  b)  and  such 
syllables  are  regarded  as  short,  but  poets  often  find  it  convenient  to  divide 
the  other  way.^ 

30.  A  syllable  ending  in  a,  e,  0,  or  u,  and  followed  by  conso- 
nant i,  is  long  whether  the  vowel  is  long  or  short :  as,  aiO,  peius. 

31.  In  compounds  of  iaciO,  the  first  syllable,  if  ending  with  a 
consonant,  is  long  by  position,  the  consonant  i  of  the  simple 
verb  being  pronounced  though  not  written  :  as,  in-iciO  (for  in-iiciO). 

32.  In  determining  quantity  by  position,  h  and  consonant  u 
in  qu,  gu,  su  (§  16),  are  not  counted  as  consonants. 

*  When  two  consonants  belonging  to  different  syllables  concur,  the  first  is 
obstructed  in  its  pronunciation  by  the  presence  of  the  second  and  is  called 
an  obstructed  consonant.  Length  by  position  is  due  to  the  time  consumed  in 
pronouncing  the  two  consonants  and  in  passing  from  one  to  the  other. 

*  The  first  syllable  of  prepositional  compounds  of  this  nature  is  always 
long  (§  22.  b) :   as,  ob-lltus,  ab-rumpo. 


8  ACCENT 

II.    QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS 

33.  Vowels  are  either  long  (-)  or  short  (w)  by  nature  and 
are  pronounced  accordingly. 

Note.  In  this  book  long  vowels  are  marked,  and  short  vowels  are,  as  a 
rule,  unmarked.  Vowels  marked  with  both  signs  at  once  (-)  occur  some- 
times as  long  and  sometimes  as  short. 

34.  While  there  are  no  comprehensive  rules  for  determining 
vowel  quantity,  the  following  statements  are  of  practical  value  : 

a.  A  vowel  is  long  before  nf,  ns,  nx,  and  net  (as,  infero,  regens, 
sanxi,  unctus)  or  when  it  is  the  result  of  contraction  :  as,  nil  for  nihil. 

h,  A  vowel  is  short  before  another  vowel  in  the  same  word  or 
before  h  (as,  rii-i-na,  trS-ho) ;  before  nt  and  nd,  before  final  m  or  t, 
and  (except  in  words  of  one  syllable)  before  final  1  or  r :  as,  portfint, 
portSndus,  portabSm,  portabSt,  animfil,  amSr. 

Note.  A  long  vowel  occasionally  appears  before  nt  or  nd  as  the  result 
of  contraction  (§  34.  a):  as,  contio  (for  conventio),  nuntius  (for  noventius), 
prendo  (for  prehendo). 

c.  Diphthongs  are  always  long  by  nature  and  are  not  marked. 

ACCENT 

35.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  which 
makes  one  syllable  more  prominent  in  utterance  than  another. 

36.  Original  Accent.  In  the  earliest  times  every  Latin 
word  was  stressed  strongly  on  the  first  syllable.  This  fact  led 
to  phonetic  changes  which  will  be  discussed  later  (§§  42ff.). 

37.  Later  Accent.  Before  the  beginning  of  the  classical 
period  there  had  become  established  the  ''three-syllable  law," 
by  which  the  accent  is  restricted  to  the  last  three  syllables  of 
the  word.    Thus : 

a.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the  first :  as,  men'sa, 
Cae'sar. 


ACCENT  9 

b.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the  penult  if 
that  is  long,  otherwise  on  the  antepenult :  as,  mo-n6'mu8,  a-man'dus, 
re'gi-tur. 

Note.  Observe  that  the  position  of  the  accent  is  determined  by  the 
length  of  the  syllable,  and  not  by  the  length  of  the  vowel  in  the  syllable. 

c.  Compounds  follow  the  same  rules  as  simple  words. 

38.  Exceptions. 

a.  FaciO  when  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions 
retains  the  accent  of  the  simple  verb :  as,  beneffi'cit,  satisfft'cit. 

h.  Genitives  in  -i  (instead  of  -ii)  and  vocatives  in  -i  (instead  of  -ie ; 
see  §  88.  c)  accent  the  penult,  even  if  it  is  short :  as,  ingg'ni,  Vergi'li. 

c.  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  final  vowel  or  have  suffered 
contraction  are  accented  on  the  last  syllable :  as,  illic'  (for  illi'ce), 
tantSn'  (for  tantO'ne),  prOduc'  (for  produ'ce),  addic'  (for  addi'ce),  audin' 
(for  audis'ne),  Arpinas'  (for  Arpina'tis),  Quiris'  (for  Quiri'tis),  munit' 
(for  muni'vit). 

39.  Enclitics.  An  enclitic  is  a  word  which  has  no  separate 
existence,  but  is  joined  to  the  word  that  precedes  it. 

The  commonest  enclitics  are  -que,  a7id ;  -ve,  or ;  -ne,  the  sign  of  a 
question;  -ce,  -met,  -nam,  and  -te,  used  merely  for  emphasis. 

40.  When  an  enclitic  is  joined  to  a  word,  the  accent  falls  on 
the  syllable  next  before  the  enclitic,  whether  that  syllable  is 
long  or  short :  as,  populus'que,  dea'que,  rggna've,  audit'ne. 

Note.  This  rule  rests  on  the  authority  of  Latin  grammarians  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  our  era,  and,  while  valid  for  that  period,  may 
not  have  been  followed  in  the  Augustan  age. 

a.  In  some  combinations  -que  has  lost  its  meaning  of  and,  and 
forms  a  real  part  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  attached.  Such  words 
are  accented  regularly :  as,  de'nique,  un'dique,  i'taque  {accordingly). 

Note;  UtrS'que,  each,  and  plerS'que,  most,  from  uter'que  and  plenis'que, 
accent  the  penult,  though  -que  is  not  enclitic. 


ro  PHONETIC  CHANGES 

41.  Adjacent  words  pronounced  together  are  sometimes  writ- 
ten as  one,  the  second  sometimes  assuming  the  character  of 
an  enclitic.  The  resulting  combinations  may  show  changes  in 
form  (cf.  English  Fm  for  I  am,  I've  for  I  have). 

Note.  Such  combinations  are  most  frequent  in  colloquial  Latin,  and  occur 
especially  when  es  or  est  is  preceded  by  a  word  ending  in  a  vowel,  m,  or  s  : 
thus,  homost  (homo  est),  periculumst  (periculum  est),  auditas  (audita  es), 
qualist  (qualis  est),  vin  (visne),  scin  (scisne),  sis  (si  vis),  sodes  (si  audes), 
sultis  (si  vultis). 

PHONETIC  CHANGES 

42.  Classical  Latin  often  differs  in  form  from  that  of  the 
earlier  periods.  Such  changes  are  due  to  the  working  of  cer- 
tain laws  of  speech  {phonetie  laivs)  which,  in  general,  had  the 
effect  of  weakening,  shortening,  or  dropping  vowels  in  un- 
accented syllables  and  of  changing  or  dropping  consonants 
difficult  to  pronounce. 

I.   CHANGES  IN  VOWELS 

A.   Weakening  of  Vowels 

43.  Most  of  the  changes  in  vowels  were  due  to  the  strong 
stress  accent  which,  in  early  Latin,  fell  on  the  first  syllable  of 
every  word.  (Cf.  §  36.)  This  tended  to  preserve  a  vowel  or 
diphthong  of  the  accented  syllable,  but  to  weaken  it  in  other 
syllables  not  accented. 

44.  Weakening  of  vowels  in  syllables  originally  tmaccented 
regularly  took  the  following  direction : 

a,  S  before  two  consonants  became  S,  except  that  before  ng  it 
became  i :  as,  confectus  for  *con-factus,^  but  contingS  for  *con-tang5. 

h.  ft  before  a  single  consonant  became  i :  as,  conficio  for  *con-facio, 
cecidi  for  ^cecadi. 

1  Assumed  forms  are  marked  by  an  asterisk. 


CHANGES  IN  VOWELS  II 

c.  6,  usually  retained  before  two  consonants  or  r,  became  i  before 
a  single  consonant:  as,  adimO  for  *ad-€m6 ;  miles  for  *milet8,  but 
militis  for  *miletes. 

d.  ae  became  i :  as,  existimO  for  *ex-ae8tim6. 

e.  au  became  u :  as,  includO  for  *in-claudo. 

45.  Long  vowels  and  diphthongs  in  syllables  originally 
accented  suffered  no  weakening,  but  in  classical  Latin  the  old 
diphthongs  ai  and  oi  were  written  ae  and  oe  :  as,  quaestor,  early 
quaistor  ;   poena,  early  poina. 

In  the  second  century  b.c.  the  diphthong  oe  became  u,  but 
oe  was  retained  in  some  words.  Thus,  in  poena  and  ptiniO, 
moenia  and  muniO,  both  forms  go  back  to  an  original  spelling 
with  oi.    In  late  Latin  oe  became  6 :  as,  fgderatus. 

B,   Contraction  of  Vowels 

46.  Two  concurrent  vowels  were  often  contracted  into  one 
long  vowel. 

a.  Two  like  vowels  might  be  contracted  into  the  corresponding 
long  vowel :  as,  nil  from  ni(h)il,  c6pia  from  *coopia,  pr6nd6  from 
pre(h)end6. 

h.  Two  unlike  vowels  were  usually  contracted  into  the  long  form 
of  the  first :  as,  d6g6  from  *d6-ag6,  cogO  from  *co-ag6,  debeo  from 
*d6-(h)abe6,  amasse  from  ama(v)isse,  cOnsuesse  from  c6nsue(y)isse. 

c.  Many  concurrent  vowels  remained  uncontracted :  as,  audi5, 
maria,  tuus,  d61e5,  etc. 

C.    Dropping  of  Vowels 

47.  a.  A  short  vowel  following  an  accented  syllable  was  sometimes 
dropped :  as,  valdg  from  va'lidg,  rettuli  from  *re'tetuli,  dextra  from 
dex'tera.    This  is  called  syn'co-pe. 

b,  A  final  short  vowel  was  sometimes  dropped  :  as,  due  from  duce, 
animal  from  *animali.    This  is  called  a-poc^o-pe. 


12  CHANGES  IN  CONSONANTS 

II.   CHANGES  IN  CONSONANTS 

48.  dt,  tt  became  ds,  ts,  then  s  or  ss  (§  53.^) :  as,  sessus  from 
*sedtus,  clausus  from  *claudtus,  passus  from  *pattus. 

49.  An  original  s  between  two  vowels  became  r :  as,  honoris 
from  *hon6sis,  amare  from  *amase,  eram  from  *esam.  This  is 
called   rho'tacism  from   the   Greek   letter  rho  =  r. 

Note.    Words  like  misi  and  causa  are  from  original  missi  and  caussa. 

50.  g,  c,  or  h  combined  with  a  following  s  to  form  x :  as, 
rex  from  *regs,  dux  from  *ducs,  traxi  from  *trahsi.i 

51.  When  two  consonants  came  together,  they  tended  to  as- 
similate, that  is,  become  like  each  other. 

Note.  Sometimes  the  assimilation  was  complete :  as,  sella  from  *sedla, 
siccus  from  *sitcus,  collis  from  *colnis,  summus  from  *supmus.  Sometimes 
the  assimilation  went  only  so  far  that  one  letter  became  like  the  other  in 
character :  thus  a  voiced  consonant  might  change  to  a  voiceless  one ;  or, 
when  the  concurrent  consonants  were  sounded  with  different  vocal  organs, 
one  of  them  might  be  changed  to  another  using  the  same  vocal  organ  as  its 
neighbor.  Thus  *scribtus  became  scriptus,  the  voiced  consonant  b  be- 
coming voiceless  to  agree  with  the  voiceless  t ;  and  *primceps  became 
princeps,  the  labial  nasal  m  changing  to  the  palatal  nasal  n  to  agree  with 
the  palatal  mute  c. 

52.  Complete  or  partial  assimilation  occurred  both  in  inflec- 
tions and  in  composition,  and  was  especially  marked  in  the  last 
consonant  of  prepositions  in  composition. 

53.  Complete  Assimilation : 

a.  ds  and  ts  became  ss,  which  was  simplified  to  s  after  a  long  vowel 
or  diphthong:  thus,  *cedsi  became  cessi,*dividsi  became  divisi,*claudsi 
became  clausi,  *concutsi  became  concussi. 

b,  A  mute  was  often  assimilated  to  a  following  mute,  liquid,  or 
nasal :    thus,  *adger  became  agger,  *sedla  became  sella,  *supmu8 

1  The  h  in  traho  represents  an  original  gh. 


VOWEL  GRADATION  OR  ABLAUT  13 

became  summus,  *8itcu8  became  siccus,  adligO  became  alligO,  ad- 
pellO  became  appellO,  *obcurr5  became  occurrO,  *8ubplic6  became 
supplied. 

Note.  In  prepositional  compounds  the  final  consonant  of  the  preposition 
was  often  assimilated  (cf .  the  last  four  examples  above) ;  but  usage  varied, 
and  in  many  compounds  the  assimilated  form  was  found  rarely,  if  at  all,  in 
the  classical  period. 

54.  Partial  Assimilation  : 

a.  Voiced  b  or  g  before  voiceless  s  or  t  was  usually  changed  to 
corresponding  voiceless  p  or  c  :  thus,  *scribsi  became  scripsi,  *scribtU8 
became  scriptus,  *augtus  became  auctus. 

b.  Labial  m  before  dental  mutes  was  regularly  changed  to  dental 
n,  and  before  palatal  mutes  was  often  changed  to  palatal  n :  thus, 
*tamtus  became  tantus,  *eumdem  became  eundem,  *primceps  became 
princeps. 

c.  A  labial  mute  before  n  became  m  :  thus,  *sopnu8  became  somnus. 

55.  Dropping  of  Consonants  : 

a.  In  final  syllables  a  d  or  a  t  before  s  was  dropped :  thus,  *lapids 
became  lapis,  *milets  became  miles. 

b.  Final  consonants  were  often  dropped :  thus,  *virgon  became  virgO, 
*cord  became  cor,  praedad  became  praeda,  habgtod  became  hab6t6. 

Note.  WTien  several  consonants  formed  a  group  diflficult  to  pronounce, 
one  or  more  were  sometimes  dropped  :  as,  ostendo  for  *obstend6,  quintus  for 
♦quinctus,  misceo  for  *inigsce5.  But  when  the  group  could  be  easily  pro- 
nounced, no  consonants  were  lost:  as,  iunxi,  rSstrum,  stringo,  iinctus,  spretus. 

III.  VOWEL  GRADATION  OR  ABLAUT 

56.  The  Indo-European  parent  speech,  of  which  most  of 
the  languages  of  Europe  are  descendants,  showed  a  regular 
system  of  vowel  variation  in  the  same  word  or  kindred  words. 
This  variation  is  called  vowel  gradation  or  ablaut.  Plain 
traces  of  ablaut  remain  in  all  the  languages  derived  from 
the  Indo-European.  Compare,  for  example,  English  drink, 
drank,  dntnk  \  steal,  stole;  hind,  bound. 


H 


VOWEL  GRADATION  OR  ABLAUT 


57.  Vowel  gradation  in  Latin  appears  sometimes  as  a  mere  dif- 
ference of  quantity  in  the  same  vowel  (as,  i,  i ;  u,  u  ;  etc.)  and 
sometimes  as  a  difference  in  the  vowel  itself  (as,  e,  o  ;  i,  ae  ;  etc.). 


rggere,  rule 
rex,  king 

ducere,  lead 
diix,  leader 

dSre,  give 
donum,  gift 


t§gere,  cover 
tSga,  robe 
tegula,  tile 

fidere,  trust 
fides,  faith 
foedus,  treaty 

mSnere,  ?'emind 
mens,  mind 


miser,  wretched 
maestus,  sad 

s6des,  seat 
s§dere,  sit 
s6dalis,  companion 
sido  (for  *si-sd-o),  sit 

nScere,  harm 
ngx,  ?nurder 


PART   II.    FORMS 

58.  Parts  of  Speech.  Latin  has  eight  parts  of  speech : 
nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  verbs,  adverbs,  prepositions,  con- 
junctions, and  interjections. 

Latin  has  no  article.    This  must  be  suppHed  by  the  context. 

59.  Inflections.  Words  may  change  their  forms  to  show 
some  change  in  sense  or  use.    This  change  is  called  inflection 

In  Latin,  nouns, ^  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  verbs  are  capable 
of  inflection.  Adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  inter- 
jections are  not  inflected,  and  are  called  particles. 

a.  Inflectional  changes  sometimes  take  place  in  the  body  of  a 
word,  or  at  the  beginning,  but  oftener.in  its  termination. 

v6x,  a  voice  voc5,  /  call       vocet,  let  him  call        tangit,  he  touches 

vScis,  of  a  voice     vocat,  he  calls    vocavit,  he  has  called    tetigit,  he  touched 

60.  Declension  and  Conjugation.  The  inflection  of  nouns, 
adjectives,^  and  pronouns  is  called  declension ;  that  of  verbs  is 
called  conjugation. 

61.  Roots.    Words  are  built  up  from  roots. 

A  root  is  the  simplest  form  to  which  a  word  can  be  reduced. 
It  is  always  a  monosyllable,  and  contains  the  fundamental 
meaning  of  the  word,  but  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  used  as  a  part 
of  speech  without  modification. 

Thus  from  the  root  sta-  we  form  the  adjective  sta-bilis  by 
adding  to  it  an  ending  called  a  suffix. 

1  A'  few  nouns  are  incapable  of  inflection.  These  are  called  indeclinable 
nouns:  as,  fis,  right;  nihil,  uothing. 

^  Adjectives  are  sometimes  said  to  have  inflections  of  comparison.  The 
forms  of  comparison  are,  however,  really  new  stems  and  are  not  strictly  to  be 
regarded  as  forms  of  inflection. 

«5 


1 6  FORMS 

62.  Stems.  The  stem  or  theme  is  the  body  of  a  word  to 
which  terminations  are  attached. 

Sometimes  the  stem  is  the  same  as  the  root,  but  usually  the 
stem  is  formed  from  the  root  by  the  addition  of  a  suffix  or  by 
changing  or  lengthening  its  vowel. 

Thus  the  root  due-  is  also  the  stem  of  due-is,  of  a  leader;  but 
from  the  root  voc-  we  may  form  voe-a-,  stem  of  voeare,  call ;  voe-ato-, 
stem  of  voeatus,  called  \  voe-ation-,  stem  of  voeationis,  of  a  calli?ig\ 
etc.  By  lengthening  the  vowel  of  this  same  root  we  get  voe-,  the 
stem  of  v6e-is,  of  a  voice. 

Note.    The  root  itself  may  have  various  forms.    See  ^  S7- 

63.  Bases.  The  base  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  remains 
unchanged  in  inflection  :  as,  serv-  in  servus,  mens-  in  mensa,  am- 
in  amem. 

a.  The  base  and  the  stem  are  often  identical,  as  in  many  consonant 
stems  of  nouns  (as,  reg-  in  reg-is).  If,  however,  the  stem  ends  in  a 
vowel,  the  latter  does  not  appear  in  the  base,  but  is  variously  com- 
bined with  the  inflectional  termination.  Thus  the  stem  of  servus  is 
servo-,  that  of  mensis  is  mensa-,  and  that  of  ignem  is  igni-. 

GENDER 

64.  Latin,  like  English,  has  three  genders :  masculine,  femi- 
nine, and  neuter. 

65.  The  gender  of  Latin  nouns  is  either  natural  or  gram- 
matical. 

I.   NATURAL  GENDER 

66.  Natural  gender  is  determined  by  sex  and  belongs  only 
to  animate  beings. 

puer,  M.,  boy  vir,  m.,  man  equus,  m.,  horse 

puella.  Y.,girl  mulier,  f.,  woman  equa,  f.,  mare 


GENDER  AND  PERSON  1 7 

a.  Many  nouns  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine  according  to 
the  sex  of  the  object  denoted.  These  are  said  to  be  of  common 
gender :  as,  civis,  citizen  (male  or  female) ;  par6ns,  parent  (either 
father  or  mother). 

II.    GRAMMATICAL  GENDER 

67.  Grammatical  gender  belongs  to  names  of  objects  and 
qualities  having  no  sex  distinction.  Such  words  may  be  either 
masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter,  and  their  gender  is  usually 
indicated  by  the  termination  of  the  nominative  singular. 

fluvius,  M.,  stream  ripa,  f.,  bank  caelum,  n.,  sky 

a.  Names  of  months  are  masculine,  being  really  adjectives  agreeing 
with  mgnsis,  m.,  month,  understood.  So  names  of  winds  and  many 
names  of  rivers  are  masculine  (perhaps  through  the  influence  of 
ventus,  M.,  wind,  and  fluvius  or  amnis,  m.,  stream). 

b.  Many  names  of  countries,  toivns,  islands,  and  trees  are  feminine. 

c.  Some  names  of  animals  have  grammatical  gender.  The  same 
form  is  then  used  for  either  sex :  as,  vulpSs,  f.,  fox,  of  either  sex ; 
anser,  m.,  gander  or  goose.  Nouns  with  but  one  gender  for  both  sexes 
arc  called  epicene. 

68.  Indeclinable  nouns,  infinitives,  and  all  expressions, 
phrases,  or  clauses  used  as  nouns  are  neuter. 

fas,  right  mane,  morning 

nihil,  nothing  scire  tuum,  your  knowledge 

69.  Words  borrowed  from  the  Greek  or  from  other  lan- 
guages usually  retain  the  gender  of  the  original. 

Lethe,  f.,  Lethe  (a  river)        Bibracte,  n.,  Bibracte  (a  town  in  Gaul) 

PERSON 

70.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  there  are  three  persons.  The 
first  person  denotes  the  person  speaking ;  the  second  person, 
the  person  spoken  to ;  the  third  person,  the  person  spoken  of. 


1 8  FORMS 


NUMBER 


71.  Latin,  like  English,  has  two  numbers,  the  singular  and 
the  plural.  The  singular  number  denotes  one,  the  plural 
number  more  than  one. 

NOUNS  AND  THEIR  DECLENSION 

72.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  thing,  or  idea. 

Caesar,  Ccesar        Roma,  Rome        domus,  house        virtus,  virtue 

Note.  The  term  substantive  is  often  applied  to  a  noun  or  to  any  word 
or  expression  used  like  a  noun. 

a.  Names  of  individual  persons  or  places  are  called  proper  nouns  : 
as,  Caesar,  Roma.    Other  nouns  are  called  common  nouns. 
6.   Nouns  are  either  abstract  or  concrete. 

1.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  idea:  as,  virtus, 
virtue  \  vittus,  fear. 

2.  A  concrete  noun  is  the  name  of  something  that  has  physical 
existence  and  can  be  seen,  touched,  or  handled :  as,  domus,  house ; 
aqua,  water. 

Note.  Nouns  that  are  abstract  are  often  used  in  a  concrete  sense  and 
vice  versa. 

c.  A  collective  noun  is  a  concrete  noun  denoting  a  group  or  class 
of  objects. 

exercitus,  army  grex,  herd  populus,  people 

73.  Declension.  Nouns  are  declined  by  adding  certain  ter- 
minations to  a  common  base  or  stem.  The  resulting  form  is 
called  a  case. 

Each  case  form,  therefore,  consists  of  two  distinct  elements,  the 
base  or  stem  and  the  case  ending.  If  the  stem  ends  in  a  consonant, 
the  base  and  the  stem  are  identical  and  the  case  endings  appear 
distinct  and  unchanged.  But  if  the  stem  ends  in  a  vowel,  this  vowel 
may  so  combine  with  the  case  endings  that  the  stem  and  real  endings 
are  hard  to  distinguish.    The  suffix  produced  by  the  combination  of 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS 


19 


the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  and  the  case  ending  is  called  a  case 
termination,  and  this  term  may  be  conveniently  extended  to  all  inflec- 
tional sufiixes  added  to  the  base. 

Thus  due-is  consists  of  the  consonant  stem  or  base  due-  and  the 
case  termination  -is,  which  is  also  the  actual  case  ending ;  but  iugO 
(base  iug-,  case  termination  -C)  goes  back  to  an  original  *iugo-ai, 
which  shows  the  stem  to  be  iugo-  and  the  actual  case  ending  -ai. 

74.  The  Cases.    1  here  are  six  cases  in  Latin  : 
Nomifiative,  case  of  the  subject. 

Genitive^  case  of  the  possessor  or  of  the  object  with  of. 
Dative,  case  of  the  object  with    to  or  for,  especially  the 
indirect  object. 

Accusative,  case  of  the  direct  object. 

Vocative,  case  of  address. 

Ablative,  case  of  the  object  "with,  from,  with,  by,  in,  or  at. 

a.  TTie  Locative  Case.  Forms  of  another  case,  the  locative,  denoting 
the  place  where,  appear  in  some  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words. 

h.  The  Oblique  Cases.  All  the  cases  except  the  nominative  and 
the  vocative  are  called  the  oblique  cases. 


THE  FIVE  DECLENSIONS   OF  NOUNS 

75.  Nouns  are  inflected  in  five  declensions,  distinguished 
by  the  final  letter  of  the  stem  and  by  the  case  termination  of 
the  genitive  singular. 


Declension 

Final  LEriER 
OF  THE  Stem 

Termination  of 
THE  Genitive 

First 

i- 

-ae 

Second 

6- 

-i 

Third 

i-  or  a  consonant. 

-is 

Fourth 

il- 

-us 

Fifth 

6- 

-€i 

20       GENERAL  RULES  OF  DECLENSION 

a.  The  dase  of  a  noun  may  always  be  found  by  dropping  the  case 
termination.  In  consonant  stems  the  l?ase  and  the  stem  are  identical. 
In  vowel  stems  the  stem  is  formed  from  the  base  by  adding  the  final 
stem-vowel. 

Thus  the  dase  of  domin-i,  the  genitive  singular  of  dominus,  a  noun  of 
the  second  declension,  is  domin-,  and  the  stem  is  domino-,  formed  by  adding 
0-,  the  final  stem-vowel  of  the  second  declension,  to  the  dase. 

GENERAL  RULES  OF  DECLENSION 

76.  a.  The  vocative  is  always  the  same  as  the  nominative  except 
in  some  Greek  nouns  and  in  the  singular  of  nouns  in  -us  of  the  second 
declension. 

It  is  not  included  in  the  paradigms  unless  it  differs  from  the  nominative. 

b.  In  neuters  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  always  alike  and 
in  the  plural  end  in  -S.  The  first  and  fifth  declensions  have  no  neuters. 

c.  The  accusative  singular  of  all  masculines  and  feminines  ends  in 
-m,  the  accusative  plural  in  -s. 

d.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 

e.  In  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  declensions  the  accusative  plural 
is  like  the  nominative  plural. 

/.  Final  -i,  -o,  -u  in  case  forms  are  always  long ;  final  -a  is  always 
shorty  except  in  the  ablative  singular  of  the  first  declension. 

THE  FIRST  DECLENSION  -  ii-STEMS 

77.  The  stem  of  nouns  of  the  first  declension  ends  in  a-  :  as, 
domina-,  stem  of  domina,  lady. 

78.  The  Nominative  Singular.  Latin  nouns  of  the  first  or  a- 
declension  end  in  -fi  in  the  nominative  singular,  and  they  are 
regularly  feminine  unless  they  denote  males. 

a.  Examples  of  masculine  nouns  in  -a  are : 
scnha,  scrz'de        yema.,  slave        agiicola.,  farmer       n&nta,  sat/or 
also  some  proper  nouns :  as, 

Murena.  Murena        Belgae,  the  BelgcB        Hadria,  the  Adtiafk 


FIRST  DECLENSION 


21 


79.  Declension.    Nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  declined 


as  follows : 


domina,  f.,  the  (a)  lady 

Stem  domina-  Uash  domin- 

SINGULAR 
Cases  Meanings 


NoM.  domina 

Gen.  dominae 

DAT.  dominae 

Ace.  dominam 

Abl.  domina 

NoM.  dominae 

Gen.  dominarum 

DAT.  dominis 

Ace.  dominas 

Abl.  dominis 


t/if  lady  (subject) 

of  the  lady  or  the  ladfs 

to  ox  for  the  lady 

the  lady  (direct  object) 

with,  from,  by,  etc.  the  lady 

PLURAL 

the  ladies  (subject) 

of  the  ladies  or  the  ladies^ 

to  or  for  the  ladies 

the  ladies  (direct  object) 

with,  from,  by,  etc.  the  ladies 


Terminations 


-am 

-a 

-de 

-arum 
-is 

-as 

-is 


Peculiar  Case  Forms  in  the  First  Declension 

80.  a.  An  old  genitive  singular  in  -as  is  sometimes  preserved  in 
the  form  familias,  used  in  the  combination  pater  (mater,  filius,  filia) 
familias,  father  {mother,  son,  daughter)  of  a  family ;  plural,  patrgs 
familias  or  familiarum. 

b.  In  early  Latin  the  genitive  singular  ended  in  -ai  (pronounced 
in  two  syllables) :  as,  auia'i.  This  ending  is  sometimes  found  later 
in  poetry. 

aula!  medid  llbabant  p6cula  Bacchi,  ///  the  midst  of  the  court  they 
poured  libations  of  wine 

c.  The  singular  of  names  of  towns  in  -a  and  of  a  few  common 
nouns  has  a  locative  case  in  -ae  (for  -ai)  to  denote  the  place  where. 

R5mae,  at  Rome  militiae,  in  military  service 

Names  of  towns  that  are  plural  in  form  and  belong  to  the  first 
declension  have  a  locative  in  -is  not  distinguishable  from  the  ablative. 
Athenis,  at  Athens  Thebis,  at  Thebes 


22       GREEK  NOUNS  OF  THE  FIRST  DECLENSION 

d.  A  genitive  plural  in  -um  instead  of  in  -arum  is  sometimes  found 
in  poetry,  especially  in  Greek  nouns  denoting  descent. 

Aeneadum,  of  the  descendants  of  JSneas 
caelicolum,  of  the  heaven  dwellers 

e.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  dea,  goddess,  and  filia,  daughter, 
and  of  some  other  words  take  the  ending  -abus  instead  of  -is  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  corresponding  masculine  forms. 

Thus  deabus  and  filiabus  are  distinguished  from  dels  and  filiis,  corre- 
sponding forms  of  deus,  god,  and  filius,  son,  respectively. 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  First  Declension 

81.  Most  common  nouns  of  the  first  declension  borrowed 
from  the  Greek  have  Latin  forms  throughout  (as,  aula,  court ; 
philosophia,  philosophy)  ;  but  proper  nouns  generally  retain 
traces  of  their  Greek  case  forms  in  the  singular. 

Such  Greek  proper  nouns  end  in  -a  or  -€,  feminine,  and  -as 
or  -€s,  masculine.    In  the  singular  they  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Electra 

Andromache 

NOM. 

Electra  (-a) 

Andromache  (-a) 

Gen. 

Electrae 

Andromaches  (-ae) 

DAT. 

Electrae 

Andromachae 

Ace. 

Electran  (-am) 

Andromachen  (-am) 

Abl. 

Electra 

Andromache  (-a) 

Voc. 

Electra  (-a) 

AndromachS  (-a) 

Aengas 

Anchises 

NOM. 

Aeneas 

Anchises 

Gen. 

Aeneae 

AnchTsae 

DAT. 

Aeneae 

Anchlsae 

Ace. 

Aenean  (-am) 

Anchisfin  (-am) 

Abl. 

Aenea 

Anchise  (-a) 

Voc. 

Aenea  (-a) 

AnchisS  (-a) 

In  the  plural  no  Greek  forms  of  declension  occur. 


SECOND  DECLENSION 


23 


THE  SECOND  DECLENSION  -  O-STEMS 

82.  The  stem  of  nouns  of  the  second  declension  ends  in  0-. 

domino-,  stem  of  dominus,  master  viro-,  stem  of  vir,  inan 

puero-,  stem  of  puer,  boy  pHo-,  stem  of  pnum,  spear 

83.  The  Nominative  Singular.  The  nominative  singular  of 
Latin  nouns  of  the  second  or  0-  declension  ends  in  -us,  -er,  -ir, 
masculine ;  and  in  -um,  neuter. 

Note.  The  terminations  -us  and  -um  were  originally  -os  and  -om,  and 
after  u  and  v  these  old  endings  were  retained  until  the  Augustan  age :  as, 
equos,  equom  ;  servos,  servom. 

84.  The  masculines  in  -us  and  neuters  in  -um  are  declined 
as  follows  : 


dominus,  m. 

,  master 

pilum,  N. 

,  spear 

Stem  domino-; 

Base  domin- 

Stem  pilo-; 

Base  pil- 

SINGULAR 

Cases 

Terminations 

Cases 

Terminations 

NOM. 

dominus 

-US 

pilum 

-um 

Gen. 

domini 

-i 

plli 

-i 

DAT. 

dominS 

-6 

pll6 

-6 

Ace. 

dominum 

-um 

pilum 

-um 

Abl. 

dominO 

-6 

pilO 

-« 

Voc. 

domine 

PLURAL 

pilum 

-um 

NOM. 

domini 

-i 

pila 

-a 

Gen. 

dominOrum 

-5rum 

pil  Orum 

-6rum 

DAT. 

dominis 

-is 

pilis 

-is 

Ace. 

dominCs 

-Cs 

pila 

-a 

Abl. 

dominis 

-is 

pilis 

-is 

a.  Nouns  in  -us  of  the  second  declension  have  a  special  form  with 
the  termination  -8  for  the  vocative  singular. 


24 


SECOND  DECLENSION 


85.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension  in  -er  and  -ir  are 
declined  like  dominus,  except  for  the  loss  of  the  tell-minations 
-us  in  the  nominative  and  -6  in  the  vocative  singular. 

Thus  we  have  puer  (for  *puerus)  in  the  nominative  singular ;  puer 
(for  *puere)  in  the  vocative  singular. 


puer,  M.,  boy 

Stem  puero- 
Base  puer- 


NoM.  puer 

Gen.  pueri 

DAT.  puer  6 

Ace.  puerum 

Abl.  puer  6 

Voc.  puer 


ager,  u.,  field       vir,  m.,  man 


Stem  agro- 
Base  agr- 

SINGULAR 


ager 

agri 

agrO 

agrum 

agr5 

ager 


Stem  viro- 
Base   vir- 


vir 
viri 
vir  6 
virum 
vir  6 
vir 


Terminations 
(-US  lost) 
-i 
-6 

-um 
-6 
(-6  lost) 


NoM.  pueri 

Gen.  puerOrum 

Dat.-  puer  is 

Ace.  puer  6s 

Abl.  puer  is 


PLURAL 

agri 

agrOrum 

agris 

agros 

agris 


viri 

virOrum 
vir  is 
vir  OS 
vir  is 


-i 

-orum 

-is 

-6s 

-is 


a.  With  nouns  in  -er,  if  e  belongs  to  the  stem  (as  in  puer),  it  is 
retained  throughout;  otherwise  it  appears  (as  in  ager)  in  only  the 
nominative  and  vocative  singular,  where  it  is  inserted  before  the  -r 
after  -o,  the  stem  vowel,  has  been  dropped. 

Most  nouns  in  -er  are  declined  like  ager,  but  the  following  are 
declined  like  puer : 

1.  Compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger:  as,  signifer,  signiferi,  standard 
bearer  \  armiger,  armigeri,  armor  bearer. 

2.  Gener,  son-in-law;  VAi&[ ,  Bacchus \  liheri,  cltildren  ;  socer,  fa fker- 
in-law ;   vesper,  eve?iing ;  and  a  few  others. 


SECOND  DECLENSION  25 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Second  Declension 

86.  Feminine  nouns  in  -us  are  : 

a.  Some  names  of  countries ,  towns ^  islands,  and  trees  (§67.  b). 

Aegyptus,  Egypt  Rhodus,  Rhodes 

Corinthus,  Corinth  malus,  apple  tree 

h.  Some  nouns  of  Greek  origin. 

arctus,  bear  methodus,  method 

c.  These  four  nouns : 

alvus,  belly  colus,  distaff 

carbasus,  linett  humiis,  ground 

87.  Neuter  nouns  in  -us  are : 

pelagus,  sea  virus,  poison  vulgus,  crowd 

Their  accusative  singular  (as  in  all  neuters)  is  the  same  as  the 
nominative  and  they  have  no  plural,  except  that  pelagus  has  a  rare 
accusative  plural,  pelagg.    Rarely  vulgus  is  masculine. 

Peculiar  Case  Forms  in  the  Second  Declension 

88.  a.   The  locative  singular  ends  in  -i,  like  the  genitive. 

humi,  on  the  ground  Corinthi,  at  Corinth 

The  locative  plural  ends  in  -is  and  is  not  distinguished  in  form  from 
the  ablative  :  as,  Delphis,  at  Delphi. 

b.  The  genitive  singular  of  nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium  ended  in  -i  (not 
in  -ii)  until  the  Augustan  age,  and  the  accent  was  on  the  penult 

(§  38-  *)• 

fili,  from  filius  (son)  praesi'di,  from  praesidium  (garrison) 

c.  The  vocative  singular  of  filius,  son,  and  of  proper  nouns  in  -ius 
ends  in  -i,  instead  of  in  -ie,  and  the  accent  is  on  the  penult. 

fill,  O  son  Vergili,  O  Vergil 

In  such  words,  therefore,  the  genitive  and  the  vocative  are  alike. 


26  SECOND  DECLENSION 

d.  The  genitive  plural  sometimes  retains  the  original  -um  (or  -om) 
instead  of  ^  using  -orum,  especially  in  poetry. 

deum,  divom,  superum,  of  the  gods  sestertium,  of  sesterces 

duumvirum,  of  the  duumviri  nummum,  of  coins 

This  is  the  regular  form  in  early  Latin,  the  later  -6rum  being 
merely  an  imitation  oi  the  genitive  plural  of  the  first  declension. 

e.  The  declension  of  deus,  god^  shows  several  peculiarities.  The 
vocative  singular  does  not  occur  in  classic  Latin.  In  late  Latin  the 
nominative  is  used  as  a  vocative.    The  plural  is  declined  as  follows : 

NoM.  del,  dil,  dl 

Gen.  deorum,  deum 

Dat.  dels,  dils,  dis 

Ace.  deos 

Abl.  dels,  dils,  dIs 

The  forms  dii  and  diis  are  pronounced  like  di,  dis. 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension 

89.  Greek  nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in  -os,  -os, 
masculine  or  feminine,  and  in  -on,  neuter.  They  are  mostly- 
proper  names,  and  are  declined  as  follows  in  the  singular 
(the  plural,  when  found,  being  usually  regular) : 

mythos,  m.  Androgeos,  m.  Delos,  f.  Ilion,  n. 


fable 

Androgeos 

Delos 

Ilium 

NOM. 

mythos 

Androgeos 

Delos 

Ilion 

Gen. 

mythi 

Androgeo  (-i) 

Deli 

Ilii 

DAT. 

myths 

Androgeo 

DelO 

IliS 

Ace. 

myth  on 

Androgeon  (-5) 

Delon(-um) 

Ilion 

Abl. 

myth  6 

Androgeo 

Del  6 

Ili5 

Voc. 

mythe 

AndrogeSs 

Dele 

Ilion 

a.  A  rare  genitive  in  -u  (Greek  ou)  sometimes  occurs :  as,  Menan- 
dru,  of  Menander. 

b.  The  name  Panthus  has  vocative  Panthu. 


THIRD  DECLENSION  27 

c.  The   termination  -oe   (Greek  oi)  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
nominative  plural,  and  -fin  in  the  genitive  plural. 

Adelphoe,  the  Adelphi  (a  play  of  Terence) 

G«drgic5n,  of  the  Georgics  (a  poem  of  Vergil)  % 

d.  For  the  declension  of   Greek  names  in  -eus  (like  Orpheus) 
see  §  112. 

THE  XraRD  DECLENSION  -  CONSONANT  AND  /-STEMS 

90.  Stems  of  the  third  declension  are  classified  as  follows : 

{A.  Mute  stems 
I.  Consonant  stems -<  B.   Liquid  stems 
(^  C.   Nasal  stems 
Pure  i-stems 


{J 

III.  Irregular  nouns 


II.  I-stems-,   „    ,,.     J  ,    , 

Mixed  i-stems 


91.  In  consonant  stems  the  stem  is  regularly  the  same  as 
the  base. 

In  i-stems  the  stem  is  formed  by  adding  i-  to  the  base. 

I.   CONSONANT  STEMS 
A.  Mute  Stems 

92.  Masculine  and  feminine  nouns  with  stems  ending  in  a 
mute  (§  10)  form  the  nominative  singular  by  adding  s  to  the 
stem.  Neuters  use  as  nominative  the  simple  stem,  dropping 
the  final  mute. 

93.  In  forming  the  nominative  singular  from  the  stem  the 
following  changes  occur : 

a.  A  lingual  mute  (t  or  d)  is  dropped  before  -s :  as,  miles  (stem 
milit-),  custOs  (stem  custOd-). 

ft.  A  palatal  mute  (c  or  g)  unites  with  -s  to  form  -x :  as,  dux  (duc-A), 
rftx  (rCg-s). 


28 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


c.  In  stems  of  more  than  one  syllable  an  original  unaccented  e, 
retained  in  the  nominative  singular  (§  44.  r),  is  regularly  changed  to  i 
in  the  other  cases :  as,  princeps,  principis. 

'  94.  Mute  stems  are  declined  as  follows : 


princeps,  m. 

miles,  M. 

lapis,  M. 

chief 

soldier 

stone 

Bases 

OR 

Stems 

Iprincip-^ 

mflit-i 

SINGULAR 

lapid- 

Terminations 
M.  and  F. 

NOM. 

princeps 

miles 

lapis 

-s 

Gen. 

principis 

militis 

lapidis 

-is 

DAT. 

princip  i 

militi 

lapidi 

-i 

Ace. 

principem 

militem 

lapidem 

-em 

Abl. 

princip  e 

milite 

PLURAL 

lapide 

-e 

NoM. 

princip  6s 

mllites 

lapidfis 

-6s 

Gen. 

princip  um 

militum 

lapidum 

-um 

DAf. 

princip  ibus 

militibus 

lapidibus 

-ibus 

Acfc. 

princip  es 

milites 

lapides 

-es 

Abl. 

princip  ibus 

militibus 

lapidibus 

-ibus 

r6x,  M. 

iudex,  M. 

virtus,  F. 

king 

judge 

manliness 

Bases 

OR 

Stems 

}- 

iiidic- 

SINGULAR 

virtut- 

Terminations 

M.  AND  F. 

NOM. 

rex 

iudex 

virtus 

-8 

Gen. 

regis 

iodic  is 

virtOtis 

-is 

DAT. 

regi 

iudici 

virtOti 

-i 

Ace. 

regem 

iodic  em 

virtotem 

-em 

Abl. 

rege 

iodic  e 

virtote 

-e 

'  The  original  form  of  these  stems  was  princep-  and  mQet-.   See§  44. r. 


THIRD  DECLENSION 

29 

PLURAL 

Terminations 

M.  AND  F. 

NOM. 

regis 

iudicCs 

virtutes 

-€s 

Gen. 

rSgum 

iudicum 

virtutum 

-um 

DAT. 

regibus 

iudicibus 

virtutibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

rggCs 

iodic  6s 

virtutes 

-€s 

Abl. 

regibus 

iudicibus 

virtutibus 

-ibus 

cor,  N. 

caput,  N. 

po6ma,  N. 

heart 

head 

poem 

Bases 

OR 

-cord- 

capit- 

poemat- 

Stems 

>  _ 

SINGl'LAR 

Terminations 
Neut. 

\'  r  1  \l 

cor 

caput 

poema 

»>  O  .>! . 

Gen. 

cordis 

capitis 

poematis 

-is 

DAT. 

cordi 

capiti 

poemati 

-i 

Ace. 

cor 

caput 

poema 

Abl. 

corde 

capite 

PLURAL 

poemate 

-e 

NoM. 

cord  a 

capita 

poemata 

-a 

Gen. 

capitum 

poematum 

-um 

DAT. 

cordibus 

capitibus 

poematibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

cord  a 

capita 

poemata 

-a 

Ahl. 

cordibus 

capitibus 

poematibus 

-ibus 

95.  Note  the  following  irregularities  : 

a.  The  stem  capit-  becomes  caput  in  the  nominative  singular,  and 
does  not  drop  the  final  mute  (§92).   An  ablative  capiti  is  found. 

b.  A  number  of  monosyllabic  nouns  with  mute  stems  are  like  cor 
in  having  no  genitive  plural.    Among  these  are  :* 


crux,  cross 
fax,  /orc/t 


IQx,  //^/// 
nex,  death 


pix,  peace 
vas,  bail 


30 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


B,  Liquid  Stems 

96.  The  nominative  singular  of  stems  ending  in  a  liquid 
(1  or  r)  is  the  same  as  the  stem.    But  observe  that  — 

a.  Stems  in  tr-  have  -ter  in  the  nominative :  as,  pater,  stem  patr-. 
h.  Stems  in  11-  or  rr-  lose  one  of  the  liquids  in  the  nominative : 
as,  far,  farris;  mel,  mellis. 

c.  Stems  in  Or-  have  short  o  in  the  nominative :  as,  amor,  amoris 
(§  34.  b). 

d.  Many  stems  in  r-  originally  ended  in  s-,  which  still  appears  in 
many  nominatives  :  as,  m5s,  custom  ;  flos,  flower.  Some  nominatives 
end  in  either  -r  or  -s :  as,  honor  or  honQs,  arbor  or  arbos. 

In  the  other  cases  original  s  regularly  became  r  between  two 
vowels  (§  49) :   as,  genitive  flOris  (for  flOsis),  mOris  (for  mOsis). 

e.  Most  neuter  stems  in  er-  and  or-  (originally  es-  and  os-)  have 
-us  in  the  nominative  :  as,  genus  (stem  gener-),  corpus  (stem  corpor-). 

97.  Liquid  stems  are  declined  as  follows : 


consul,  M. 
consul 

Bases  ^ 

OR     \  consul- 
StemsJ 

flOs,  M. 
flower 

flor- 

pastor,  M. 
shepherd 

pastor- 

mater,  f. 
mother 

matr- 

' 

NOM. 

Gen. 

consul 
c5nsulis 

flos 
flor  is 

SINGULAR 

pastor 
pastor  is 

mater 
matr  is 

Terminations 

M.  AND  F. 

-is 

DAT. 

consul  i 

flori 

pastor  i 

matri 

-i 

Ace. 

consul  em 

flor  em 

pastor  em 

matr  em 

-em 

Abl. 

consul  e 

flore 

pastore 

PLURAL 

matre 

-e 

NOM. 

consul  6s 

flor  6s 

pastor  6s 

matr  6s 

-68 

Gen. 

consul  um 

florum 

pastor  um 

matrum 

-um 

DAT. 

consul  ibus 

flor  ibus 

pastor  ibus 

matr  ibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

consults 

flores 

pastor  6s 

matr  6s 

-5s 

Abl. 

consul  ibus 

flor  ibus 

pastor  ibus 

matr  ibus 

-ibus 

THIRD  DECLENSION 


31 


tempus,  N. 

opus,  N. 

aequor,  n. 

time 

work 

sea 

Bases'] 

OR     vtempor- 
Stems J 

oper- 

aequor- 

SINGULAR 

Terminations 
Neut. 

NoM.    tempus 

epus 

aequer 

Gen.    temporis 

eperis 

aequor  is 

-is 

Dat.    tempori 

operi 

aequor i 

-i 

Ace.    tempus 

opus 

aequor 

Abl.    tempore 

operfi 

PLURAL 

aequor e 

-e 

NoM.   temper  a 

opera 

aequor a 

-a 

Gen.    temix)rum 

eperum 

aequor  um 

-um 

Dat.    temper  ibus 

operibus 

aequor  ibus 

-ibus 

Ace.    tempera 

opera 

aequor a 

-a 

Abl.    temper  ibus 

operibus 

aequor  ibus 

-ibus 

C.  Nasal  Stems 


98.  The  nominative  singular  of  stems  ending  in  a  nasal 
(n  or  m)  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  with  the  following  slight 
modifications : 

a.  Stems  in  5n-  drop  n  in  the  nominative :  as,  legiS,  stem  legiOn- ; 
ratio,  stem  ration-. 

b.  Stems  in  din-  and  gin-  drop  n  and  change  i  to  0:  as,  OrdO, 
stem  Ordin- ;  virgO,  stem  virgin-.  So  also  homO  (stem  homin-),  nCmO 
(stem  ngmin-),  ApollO  (stem  Apollin-). 

c.  Neuters  and  a  few  masculine  stems  in  in-  (not  in  din-  or  gin-) 
have  the  nominative  in  -en:  as,  nOmen,  n.,  stem  nOmin-;  flfimen,  m., 
stem  flftmin-. 

Note.  There  is  only  one  stem  in  m-,  hiems  (stem  hiem-),  genitive 
hiemis,  loi'/i/er.  This  nasal  stem  is  peculiar  also  in  adding -a  to  form  the 
nominative  singular. 


32 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


99.  Stems  ending  in  a  nasal  are  declined  as  follows : 


6rd5,  M. 

legiO,  F. 

nSmen,  n. 

row 

legion 

name 

Basest 
OR     V5rdin- 

Stems  j 

legion- 

nomin- 

SINGULAR 

Terminations 

Terminations 

M.  and  F. 

Neut. 

NOM 

ordo 
ordinis 

legio 
legion  is 

nomen 
nominis 

i\«JM. 

Gen. 

-is 

-is 

DAT. 

ordini 

legion  i 

-i 

nomini 

-i 

Arc 

ordinem 

legion  em 

-em 

nomen 

XVUC 

Abl. 

ordine 

legion  e 

-e 

nomine 

-e 

PLURAL 

NOM. 

ordines 

legiones 

-^s 

nomin  a 

-a 

Gen. 

ordinum 

legion  um 

-um 

nominum 

-um 

DAT. 

ordin  ibus 

legion  ibus 

-ibus 

nomin  ibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

ordines 

legiones 

-es 

nomin  a 

-a 

Abl. 

ordin  ibus 

legion  ibus 

-ibus 

nomin  ibus 

-ibus 

. 

II.   I-STEMS 

100.  The  original  distinction  between  the  declension  of  con- 
sonant stems  and  that  of  i-stems  is  shown  by  the  following 
comparison  of  case  terminations : 


Singular 


Plural 


CONSONANT  STEMS 

Accusative  (u.  and  f.)  -em 
Ablative  (m.,  f.,  and  n.)  -e 

'  Nominative  (n.)  -a 
Genitive  (M.,F.,and  N.)-um 
Accusative  (m.  and  f.)  -es, 
(N.)  -a 


I-STEMS 

Accusative  (m.  and  f.)  -im 
Ablative  (m.,  f.,  and  n.)  -i 

Nominative  (n.)  -ia 
Genitive  (m.,  f.,  and  n.)  -ium 
Accusative   (m.  and   f.)  -is, 
(N.)  -ia 


This  distinction  was  maintained  throughout  by  relatively  few 
words,   the   tendency   being  to   displace   the   i-  forms   by   the 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


33 


corresponding  forms  of  the  consonant  stems.  Along  with  this 
went  a  tendency  of  certain  consonant  stems  to  assume  i-  forms 
in  the  plural.   The  I-  forms  which  persisted  most  strongly  were  : 

The  ablative  singular  in  -i  and  the  nominative  and  accusative 
plural  in  -ia  for  all  neuters. 

The  genitive  plural  in  -ium. 

The  accusative  plural  (m.  and  f.)  in  -is. 

A.   Pure  I-Stems 

101.  Pure  i-stems  are  those  that  have  retained  some  or  all 
of  the  i-  forms  in  the  singular  and  all  of  them  in  the  plural. 

102.  Masculines  and  Feminines  —  Pure  /-Stems.  Masculine 
and  feminine  nouns  of  this  class  regularly  end  in  -is  in  the 
nominative  singular,  in  -ium  in  the  genitive  plural,  and  in  -is 
or  -6s  in  the  accusative  plural.    They  are  declined  as  follows : 


tussis,  F.,  cough 

turris,  f.,  tower 

ignis,  M.,fire 

Stem  tussi- 

Stem  turri- 

Stem  igni- 

Base   tuss- 

Base  turr- 

SINGULAR 

Base  ign- 

Terminations 
M.  and  F. 

NOM. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

-is 

Gen. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

-is 

DAT. 

tussi 

turri 

igni 

-i 

Ace. 

tussim 

turrim  (-em) 

ignem 

-im  (-«m) 

Am.. 

tussi 

turri  (-€) 

PLURAL 

igni(-€) 

-i(^) 

NoM. 

tussgs 

turrfis 

ign68 

-6s 

Gen. 

tuss  ium 

turrium 

ign  ium 

-ium 

DAT. 

tussibus 

turribus 

ign  ibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

tussis  (-6s) 

turris  (-6s) 

ignis  (-68) 

-is  (-6S) 

Abl. 

tussibus 

turribus 

ign  ibus 

-ibus 

34 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


a.  Four  i-stems  end  in  -er  in  the  nominative  singular.  These  are 
imber,  rain  ;  linter,  boat ;  titer,  skin  ;  venter,  belly. 

b.  Declined  like  tussis  (ace.  -im,  abl.  -i)  in  the  singular,  but  lacking 
the  plural,  are  names  of  towns  and  rivers  in  -is,  and  sitis,  Ikirsl. 

c.  Declined  like  turris  (ace.  -im,  -em  ;  abl.  -i,  -e)  are  :  iehns, /ever ; 
navis,  skip  ;  puppis,  slern  ;  sementis,  sowing;  and  a  few  others. 

d.  Declined  like  ignis  (ace.  -em ;  abl.  -i,  -e)  are :  avis,  bird;  civis, 
citizen ;  classis,  fleet ;  collis,  hill ;  finis,  end ;  orbis,  circle ;  ovis,  sheep  ; 
and  a  few  others. 

e.  Messis,  crop ;  restis,  rope ;  and  seciiris,  ax^  have  the  accusative 
singular  in  -im  or  -em,  and  in  the  ablative  messe,  reste,  and  securi 
respectively. 

103.  Neuters  —  Pure  /-Stems.  Neuter  pure  i-stems  end  in 
-e,  -al,  or  -ar  in  the  nominative  singular.  They  have  -i  in  the 
ablative  singular,  -ium  in  the  genitive  plural,  and  -ia  in  the 
nominative  and  accusative  plural, 

a.  In  the  nominative  singular  the  final  i-  of  the  stem,  if  retained, 
is  changed  to  -e:  as,  insigne,  stem  insigni-.  But  most  neuters  in 
which  the  i-  of  the  stem  is  preceded  by  al  or  ar  lose  the  final  stem 
vowel  and  shorten  the  preceding  a  (§  34.  ^) :  as,  animal,  stem 
animali-. 

104.  Neuter  pure  i-stems  are  declined  as  follows : 


insigne,  n. 

animal,  n. 

calcar,  n. 

decoration 

animal 

spur 

Stems    insigni- 

animali- 

calcari- 

Bases    insign- 

animal- 

calcar- 

SINGULAR 

Terminations 

NoM.   insigne 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  — 

Gen.    insign  is 

animal  is 

calcar  is 

-is 

DAT.    Insign  i 

animal  i 

calcar  i 

-i 

Ace.     Insigne 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  — 

Abl.    insigni 

animali 

calcar  i 

-i 

i 


THIRD  DECLENSION  35 


PLURAL 

Terminations 

No*i. 

insignia 

animal  ia 

calcaria 

-U 

Gen. 

insignium 

animalium 

calcarium 

-ium 

DAT. 

insign  ibus 

animal  ibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

Acc. 

insign  ia 

animal  ia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Abl. 

insign  ibus 

animal  ibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

a.  Geographical  names  in  -e  (as,  Praeneste,  SOracte)  have  the 
ablative  in  -e.    R6te,  //^/,  has  r6te  or  rarely  rgti. 

B.    Mixed  I-Stems 

105.  Mixed  i-stems  are  either  original  i-stems  that  have  lost 
their  i-  forms  in  the  singular,  or  consonant  stems  that  have 
assumed  i-  forms  in  the  plural.  It  is  often  impossible  to  distin- 
guish between  these  two  classes. 

Masculines  and  Feminines.  Mixed  i-stems  are  masculine  or 
feminine.  , 

They  are  declined  like  consonant  stems  in  the  singular  and 
like  i-stems  in  the  plural,  and  have  — 

-em  in  the  accusative  singular 
-e  in  the  ablative  singular 
-ium  in  the  genitive  plural 
-is  or  -es  in  the  accusative  plural 

106.  Mixed  i-stems  include  the  following : 

a.  Nouns  in  -€s,  genitive  -is :  as,  caed6s  (gen.  caedis),  nubSs 
(gen.  nubis). 

b.  Monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  by  a  consonant:  as,  ars, 
p6ns,  arz. 

c.  Polysyllables  in  -ns  or  -rs :  as,  cliSns,  cohors. 

d.  The  plurals  fauc6s,  optimatSs,  penates.  Quiritgs,  Samnitgs ;  the 
monosyllables  fraus,  lis,  mus,  nix,  nox ;  and  sometimes  nouns  in  -tas 
(gen.  -tatis),  as,  civitas  (genitive  plural  generally  civitfitum,  but  some- 
times civititium). 


36  THIRD  DECLENSION 

107.  Mixed  i-stems  are  declined  as  follows : 


nubgs,  F. 

urbs,  F. 

nox,  F. 

cliens,  m. 

aetas,  f. 

cloud 

city 

night 

client 

age 

Stems  iiub(i)- 

urb(i)- 

noct(i)- 

client(i)- 

aetat(i)- 

Bases  nub- 

urb- 

noct- 

SINGULAR 

client- 

aetat- 

NoM.   nubes 

urbs 

nox 

clien  s 

aetas 

Gen.    nobis 

urbis 

noctis 

client  is 

aetatis 

DAT.    nubi 

urbi 

nocti 

client! 

aetati 

Ace.    nub  em 

urbem 

noctem 

client  em 

aetatem 

Abl.    nube 

urbe 

nocte 

client  e 

aetate 

PLURAL 

NoM.  nubes  urbes  noctes  client es  aetates 

Gen.  nubium  urbium  noctium        clientium^      aetatum" 

Dat.  nubibus  urbibus  noctibus       client  ibus        aetatibus 

Ace.  nub  is  (-es)  urbis  (-es)  noctis  (-es)  client  is- (-es)  aetatis  (-es) 

Abl.  nubibus  urbibus  noctibus       client  ibus        aetatibus 

a.  Auris,  ear,  and  a  few  other  pure  i-stems  have  lost  their  i-  forms 
in  the  accusative  and  ablative  singular  and  are  declined  like  nubes. 

b.  Canis,  ^og,  and  iuvenis,  youth,  are  consonant  stems  that  have 
assumed  some  i-  forms.  They  have  -em  in  the  accusative  singular, 
-e  in  the  ablative  singular,  -um  in  the  genitive  plural,  and  -6s  or  -is  in 
the  accusative  plural. 

c.  FamSs,  hunger,  always  has  the  ablative  famS. 

108.  The  declension  of  i-stems  was  unstable  at  all  periods  of  the 
language  and  was  confused  even  among  the  Romans  themselves,  early 
Latin  having  i-  forms  which  afterwards  disappeared.  Thus  an  old 
nominative  plural  in  -is  was  completely  lost.  Lost  in  most  words  was 
the  accusative  singular  in  -im.  Somewhat  more  stable  was  the  abla- 
tive singular  in  -i,  while  the  genitive  plural  in  -ium  and  the  accusative 
plural  in  -is  were  retained  in  nearly  all  words. 

1  Rarely  clientum.  *  Also  aetatium. 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


37 


III.  IRREGULAR  NOUNS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 

109.  Among  the  nouns  showing  irregular  case  formations 
are  the  following : 


senex,  m. 

cars 

,   F. 

OS,  N. 

Vis,  F. 

bOs,  c. 

old  man 

flesh 

bone 

force 

ox,  cow 

SINGULAR 

• 

NOM. 

senex 

caro 

OS 

vis 

bos 

Gen. 

sen  is 

cam 

is 

OSS  is 

vis  (rare) 

bovis 

DAT. 

seni 

cami 

ossi 

vi  (rare) 

bovi 

Ace. 

sen  em 

cam  em 

OS 

vim 

bovem 

Abl. 

sene 

came 

osse 

vi 

bove 

PLURAL 

NoM. 

sen  68 

cam 

68 

ossa 

vir68 

bov6s 

Gen. 

senum 

cam  ium 

ossium 

virium 

boum 

DAT. 

senibus 

cam 

ibus 

OSS  ibus 

viribus 

bo  bus  (bubus) 

Ace. 

sen  6s 

cam 

68 

ossa 

viris  (-6s) 

bov6s 

Abl. 

senibus 

cam 

ibus 

OSS  ibus 

viribus 

bo  bus  (bubus) 

sfls,  c. 

[uppiter,  M. 

nix,  F. 

iter,  N. 

swine 

Jupiter 

snow 

march 

SINGULAR 

NOM. 

SU8 

luppiter 

nix 

iter 

Qf.N. 

suis 

lovis 

nivis 

itineris 

DAT. 

sui 

lovi 

nivi 

itineri 

Ace. 

suem 

lovem 

nivem 

iter 

Abl. 

sue 

love 

PLURAL 

nive 

itinere 

NOM. 

SU68 

niv6s 

itinera 

Gen. 

suum 

niv  ium 

itinerum 

DAT. 

subu8  (su 

libU8) 

nivibus 

itineribus 

Ace. 

su68 

niv6s 

itinera 

Abl. 

subu8  (su 

libus) 

nivibus 

itineribus 

38       GREEK  NOUNS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 

a.  Like  sus  is  declined  grus,  crajie,  except  that  the  dative  and 
ablative  plural  are  always  gniibus.  lecur,  n.,  live?-,  has  genitive  iecoris 
or  iecinoris.  Supellex,  y.,  furniture,  has  genitive  supellectilis,  ablative 
supellectili  or  -e ;  there  is  no  plural. 

The  Locative  Case 

110.  The  locative  singular  for  nouns  of  the  third  declension 
ends  in  -i  or  -e. 

ruri  (rarely  rure),  in  the  country 
Carthagini  or  Carthagine,  at  Carthage 

The  locative  plural  ends  in  -ibus  and  is  not  distinguished  in 
form  from  the  ablative :  as,  Trallibus,  at  Tralles. 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension 

111.  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  often  entirely 
regular,  but  many,  especially  proper  names,  show  Greek  ter- 
minations in  the  following  cases  : 

fl.  Genitive  singular  in  -os  :  as,  tigridos. 

h.  Accusative  singular  in  -n  or  -a :  as,  basin,  tigrida,  aethera. 

c.  Vocative  singular  like  the  stem  :  as,  Pericle,  Orpheu,  Atla. 

d.  Nominative  plural  in  -€s  :  as,  heroes. 

e.  Accusative  plural  in  -Ss  :  as,  lampadSs. 


112.  Examples    of    these 
following"  ■ 

peculiarities    are    seen 

in    the 

A  VyAX\_f  TV  J.AX^      • 

hSras,  M. 

lampas,  f. 

basis,  F. 

tigris,  c. 

nais,  F. 

hero 

torch 

base 

tiger 

naiad 

SINGULAR 

NoM.    hero  8 

lampas 

basis 

tigris 

nais 

Gen.     hero  is 

lampados 

baseos 

tigris  (-idos) 

naidos 

DAT.     heroi 

lampadi 

basi 

tigri 

naidi 

Ace.      hero  a 

lampada 

basin 

tigrin  (-id  a) 

naida 

Abl.     heroe 

lampade 

basi 

tigri  (-ide) 

naide 

1 


GREEK  NOUNS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION      39 

PLURAL 

NoM.  herogs  lam  pad  6s  basCs  tigrfis  naidCs 

Gen.  heroum  lampadum  basium  (-eCn)  tigrium  naidum 

U.,  A.  heroibus  lampadibus  basibus  tigribus  naidibus 

Ace.  hgrofis  lampadis  basis  (-eis)       tigris  (-idfts)  naidfts 


NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 
Voc. 


Dido 

Didonis  (Didfls) 
Didoni  (Dido) 
Didonem  (Dido) 
Didone  (Dido) 
Dido 


GREEK   PROPER  NAMES 

Simois 

Simoentis 

Simoenti 

Simoenta 

Simoente 

Simois 


NoM.   Orpheus 
Gen.    Orphei  (-eOs) 
Orphei  (-e6) 

Orphea  (-um) 


DAT. 

Ace. 

Abl. 
Voc. 


Orphe5 
Orpheu 


Pericl6s 
Periclis  (-i) 
Pericli  (-i) 

Periclem  (-ea,  -6n) 

Pericle 
Pericles  (-€) 


Capys 

Capyos  . 

Capyi 

Capyn 

Capye 

Capy 

Paris 

Paridis 

Paridi 

{Paridem 
Parim  (-in) 
Paride  (Pari) 
Pari 


Note.   The  regular  Latin  forms  may  be  used  for  most  of  the  above. 

a.  Like  Simois  are  declined  stems  in  ant-  (nominative  in  -fis) :  as, 
Atlas,  -antis. 

b.  In  a  few  Greek  titles  of  books  -On  is  found  in  the  genitive  plural : 
as,  MetamorphOseOn,  of  the  Metamorphoses  (Ovid's  well-known  poem). 


Gender  in  the  Third  Declension 

113.  There  are  no  rules  for  gender  in  the  third  declension 
that  do  not  present  numerous  exceptions.  The  gender  of  many 
nouns  is  determined  by  the  general  principles  laid  down  in 
vj§64ff.  The  most  important  rules  for  the  others,  with  their 
principal  exceptions,  are  the  following : 


40  GENDER  IN  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 

114.  Masculine  are  nouns  in  -or,  -os,  -er,  -6s  (gen.  -itis),  -ex 
(gen.  -icis)  :  as,  color,  flOs,  imber,  gurges  (gurgitis),  vertex  (verticis). 

Exceptions 

a.  Feminine  are  arbor,  tree ;  linter,  skiff. 

b.  Neuter  are  aequor,  sea  ;  cor,  keart ;  marmor,  marble ;  6s,  mouth  ; 
cadaver,  dead  body ;  iter,  way ;  v6r,  spring ;  and  names  of  plants  and 
trees  in  -er :  as,  acer,  maple. 

115.  Fe^ninirie  are  nouns  in  -6,  -is,  -x,  and  in  -s  preceded  by 
a  consonant  or  by  any  long  vowel  except  6 :  as,  legio,  avis,  arx, 
urbs,  nubes,  civitas,  virtus. 

Exceptions 

a.  Masculine  are: 

1 .  serm5,  talk ;  cardo,  hinge ;  margo,  edge ;  ordO,  order ;  turbo, 
storm  ;  and  nouns  in  -io  denoting  material  objects  :  as,  pugio,  poniard. 

2.  Nouns  in  -nis  or  -guis  :  as,  ignis,  Jire\  sanguis,  blood.    Also  : 

axis,  axle  fustis,  club  i^iscis,  Jish 

coUis,  hill  lapis,  sto7ie  postis,  post 

ensis,  sword  mensis,  month  pulvis,  dust 

fascis,  bundle  orbis,  ciixle  sentis,  brier 

3.  Nouns  in  -ex  (gen.  -icis),  and  grex,  gregis,  herd,  and  r6x,  regis,  king. 

4.  d6ns,  tooth  ;  f 6ns,  fountain  ;  m6ns,  moufitain  ;  p6n8,  bridge. 

5.  ari6s,  ram-,  paries,  wall;  -pes, foot. 

6.  mus,  mouse. 

b.  Neuter  are  vas  (vasis),  dish ;  criis,  leg;  ius,  law;  riis,  country. 

116.  Neuter  are  nouns  in  -e,  -al,  -ar,  -n,  -ur,  -us  :  as,  mare, 
animal,  calcar,  n6men,  r6bur,  corpus  ;  also  lac,  milk,  and  caput,  head. 

Exceptions 

fl.  Masculine  are  i^va^n, flute-player ;  vultur,  vulture;  lepus,  hare. 
b.  Feminine  is  pecus  (gen.  -udis),  beast. 


FOURTH  DECLENSION 


4' 


THE  FOURTH  DECLENSION  -  t^-STEMS 

117.  The  stem  of  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  ends  in 
u- :  as,  friictu-,  stem  of  fractus. 

118.  The  nominative  singular  of  nouns  of  the  fourth  declen- 
sion ends  in  -us,  masculine ;  or  in  -G,  neuter.  In  masculines 
the  nominative  is  formed  by  adding  -s  to  the  stem  :  as,  friictu-s, 
fniit.  The  nominative  singular  of  neuters  is  the  simple  stem 
with  -u  lengthened  :  as,  comfl,  honi. 

119.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  are  declined  as  follows  : 


fructus,  M. 

,  fruit 

cornfi,  N. 

,  horn 

Stem  friictu-;   li 

ASE  fruct- 

SINGULAR 

Stem  cornu-; 

Bask  corn- 

Terminations 

Terminations 

NOM. 

fructus 

-us 

coma 

-a 

Gen. 

fructus 

-as 

comas 

-as 

DAT. 

fructui  (-U) 

-Ui  (-U) 

corn  a 

-a 

Ace. 

fructum 

-um 

coma 

-a 

Abl. 

fructG 

-u 

PLURAL 

coma 

-a 

NOM. 

fructfis 

-fls 

comua 

-ua 

Gen. 

fructuum 

-uum 

corn  uum 

-uum 

DAT. 

f  ruct  ibus 

-ibus 

corn  ibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

fructus 

-us 

comua 

-ua 

AllL. 

f  ruct  ibus 

-ibus 

com  ibus 

-ibus 

Note.  Cornu,  horn ;  genu,  knee ;  and  verii,  spit,  are  the  only  neuters 
of  the  fourth  declension  in  common  use. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Fourth  Declension 

120.  The  following  nouns  in  -us  arc  feminine  :  acus.  needle  ; 
domus,  lioitse  \  Idus  (plural),  Ides\  manus,  kand\  porticus,  colon- 
nade ;  tribus,  tribe. 


42  FIFTH  DECLENSION 

Peculiar  Case  Forms  in  the  Fourth  Declension 

121.  a.  A  genitive  singular  in  -i  (following  the  second  declension) 
is  common  in  nouns  in  -tus  in  early  writers.  Other  early  genitive 
endings  are  -uis  and  -uos. 

Thus,  senati,  senatuis,  senatuos  occur  for  the  regular  senatus.  The 
form  senati  is  found  as  late  as  Cicero. 

b.  A  genitive  plural  in  -um,  following  the  analogy  of  o-stems 
(cf.  §  88.  d),  is  sometimes  used,  especially  by  the  poets :  as,  currum 
for  curruum. 

c.  In  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  the  original  ending  was  -ubus, 
and  this  is  retained  in  classical  times  in  arcus  and  tribus.  Some 
words  have  both  -ibus  and  -ubus. 

d.  The  word  domus,  f.,  house,  shows  forms  of  both  the  fourth 
and  second  declensions.  The  locative  is  domi  (rarely  domui),  at  home. 
In  the  other  cases  it  is  declined  as  follows : 


domus,  F. 

house  or 

home 

SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

NOM. 

domus 

domus 

Gen. 

domus,  domi 

domuum,  domorum 

DAT. 

domui,  domo 

domibus 

Ace. 

domum 

domos,  domus 

Abl. 

domo,  domu 

domibus 

Note.  The  genitive  domi  and  the  dative  domo  are  early  forms.  The 
ablative  domu  is  rare,  and  the  genitive  plural  domorum  is  poetical  or  late. 

e.  The  nouns  iussu,  by  the  co?nmafid\  iniussu,  without  the  com- 
mand \  and  natd,  by  birth,  are  found  in  the  ablative  singular  only. 
/.  In  early  Latin  the  ablative  singular  ended  in  -ud  :  as,  magistratud. 

THE  FIFTH  DECLENSION  -  £-STEMS 

122.  The  stem  of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  ends  in  e-. 
The  nominative  singular  is  formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  -s  : 
as,  di6-s,  day. 


FIFTH  DECLENSION 


43 


123.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  declined  as  follows : 


dies,  M.,  day 

res 

,  F.,  thing 

fides,  F.,  faith 

Stem  die-;   Bask  di- 

Stem 

re- ;   Base  r- 

Stem  fid^ ;   Base  fid- 

SINGULAR 

I 

ERM I  NATIONS 

NOM. 

dies 

res 

fides 

-es 

Gen. 

diei 

r6i 

fidgi 

-ei 

DAT. 

diei 

r6i 

fidSi 

-«i 

Acc. 

diem 

rem 

fid  em 

-em 

Abl. 

die 

re 

PLURAL 

fide 

-€ 

No.M. 

dies 

res 

-H 

Gen. 

dierum 

r6nim 

-erum 

DAT. 

diebus 

rebus 

-ebus 

Acc. 

dies      ' 

res 

-es 

Abl. 

diebus 

rebus 

-ebus 

Note  i.  The  e-  of  the  stem  is  regularly  shortened  before  -m  in  the 
accusative  singular  (§  34.  b). 

Note  2.  The  e-  of  the  stem  is  shortened  in  the  genitive  and  dative 
singular  of  fides,  spes,  and  res  in  classical  Latin. 

Gender  in  the  Fifth  Declension 

124.  All  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine  except 
dies,  day  (usually  masculine),  and  meridies,  midday  (always  mas- 
culine). But  dies  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  singular  when 
it  denotes  an  appointed  time  or  extent  of  time. 

cSnstituta  die,  on  a  set  day  longa  dies,  a  long  time 


Peculiar  Case  Forms  in  the  Fifth  Declension 

125.  a.  Only  dies  and  res  of  the  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are 
declined  throughout.  Most  of  them  have  no  plural  forms  at  all,  but 
a  few  have  the  nominative  and  accusative,  among  which  are  acies, 
line  of  battle;  f&ciia, /aee  \  species,  j/^^/;  s^a,  Aope. 

b.  A  genitive  and  dative  singular  in  -€  instead  of  -li  are  sometimes 
found  :  as,  die  for  diei ;  and  a  genitive  in  -i  also  occurs :  as,  dii  for  diei. 


44  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS 

DEFECTIVE  NOUNS 
NOUNS  USED  ONLY  IN  THE  SINGULAR 

126.  Some  nouns  are  limited  by  their  signification  to  the 
singular.    These  are  especially  : 

a.  Names   of  Persons   and  Places :    as,  Caesar,   Roma.    But  the 

plural  may  be  used  to  indicate  two  or  more  persons  or  places  having 
the  same  name :  as,  Caesares,  the  Ccesars ;  Galliae,  the  two  Gauls 
(Cisalpine  and  Transalpine)  or  to  define  persons  as  of  a  certain 
class  or  character :  as,  Scipiones,  meft  like  Scipio. 

b.  Names  of  Materials  :  as,  aurum,  gol<l;  aes,  bro7ize.  But  the  plural 
may  be  used  to  denote  pieces  or  kinds  of  material,  or  objects  made 
of  it :  as,  nives,  snowflakes ;  vina,  wifies ;  aera,  bronzes. 

c.  Abstract  Nouns :  as,  metus,  fear ;  fortitude,  courage.  But  the 
plural  may  be  used  to  denote  insta?ices  or  kitids  of  the  quality :  as, 
calSres,  times  of  heat  \  odia,  kinds  of  hatred.  The  poets  often  use  the 
plural  of  abstract  nouns  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 

NOUNS  USED  ONLY  IN  THE  PLURAL 

127.  Some  nouns  are  commonly  or  exclusively  found  only  in 
the  plural.    Such  are  :      ' 

a.  Many  Names  of  Towns.^ 

Athenae,  Athens  Pompeii,  Pompeii 

b.  Most  Names  of  Festivals  and  Games. 

Olympia,  the  Olympic  games 
Bacchanalia,  the  festival  of  Bacchus 

c.  Names  of  Classes. 

poster!,  descendatits  optimates,  the  upper  classes 

maiores,  ancestors  penates.  household  gods 

liberi,  children  Quirites,  citizens  (of  Rome) 

Some  names  of  towns  are  either  singular  or  plural :  as,  Pergamum  or 
Pergama,  Pergamum. 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS  45 

d.  Words  Plural  by  Signification.    Many  of  these  are  translated 
into  English  by  nouns  in  the  singular. 

angustiae,  narrow  pass  indutiae.  /ruce 

arma,  cin/is  insidiae,  ambush 

artvis.  Joints  Kalendae,  Calends 

cihdiXidiy  food  minae,  threats 

divitiae,  riches  moenia,  city  walls 

epulae,  banquet  Nonae,  Agones 

exsequiae,  funeral  obsequies  nuptiae,  wedding 

fores,  double  doors  reliquiae,  remains 

hiberna,  winter  quarters  tenebrae,  darkness 

Idus,  Ides  viscera,  y7^j/r 

Note.   The  poets  often  use  the  plural  for  the  singular,  usually  for  the 
sake  of  the  meter,  but  often  for  no  apparent  reason. 

ora  (for  h%),face  sceptra  (for  sceptnun),  scepter 

NOUNS  DEFECTIVE  IN  CERTAIN  CASES 

128.  a.  Indeclinable  Nouns.  Some  neuters  are  used  only  as  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  singular  and  so  appear  as  indeclinable.    These  are : 

fas,  right  instar,  likeness  opus,  need 

nefas,  wrong  nihil  (nil),  nothing  secus,  sex 

b.  Nouns  used  in  One  Case  only.   Some  nouns  of  the  fourth  declen- 
sion are  found  only  in  the  ablative  singular  (§  121.  <r).    Also: 

pondd,  N.,  by  weight       mane,  n.,  morning       sponte,  f.,  voluntarily 

Note.   Mane  is  used  also  as  an  indeclinable  accusative. 

The  accusative  plural,  infitias,  denial,  is  used,  but  only  with  e6,  go. 

c.  Nouns  used  in  Two  Cases  only. 

fors,  F.,  forte,  chance,  nominative  and  ablative  singular. 

foras.  F.,  foris.  out  0/  doors,  accusative  and  ablative  plural,  used  as 

adverbs. 

d.  Defective  Nouns  used  in  More  than  Two  Cases.    Most  of  these 
are  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

e.  Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  want  the  whole  or  part  of 
the  plural  (§  125.  «). 


46 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS 


||ilH|lll!|t|i|tiNl 

< 

< 

calcibus 

cordibus 

crucibus 

dapibus 

facibus 

frugibus 

impetibus 

lucibus 

necibus 

opibus 

oribus 

pacibus 

precibus 

solibus 

vadibus 
vicibus 

c3 
< 

calcis, -es 

corda 

cruces 

dapes 

faces  • 

fruges 

iiira 

luces 

mella 

neces 

opes 

ora 

paces 

preces 

rura 

soles 

tCira 

vades 

vices 

< 

calcibus 

cordibus 

crucibus 

dapibus 

facibus 

frugibus 

lucibus 

necibus 

opibus 

oribus 

pacibus 

precibus 

solibus 

vadibus 
vicibus 

O 

frugum 
iurum  ^ 

opum 
precum 

o 

< 

D 

00 

calcem 

cor 

crucem 

dapem 

facem 

frugem 

impetum 

ius 

lucem 

mel 

ncminem 

necem 

opem 

OS 

pacem 

precem 

rQs 

solem 

tus 

vadem 

vicem 

1           ■£  ■            'i 

111   ills:!  11 1   ■g||sii;g| 

;5 

calcis 

cordis 

crucis 

dapis,  F. 

facis 

frugis,F. 

iuris 
lucis 
mellis 

necis 
opis,  F. 
oris 
pacis 

ruris 
solis 
turis 
vadis 
vicis,  F. 

s 

z 

calx,  F. 
cor,  N. 
crux,  F. 

fax,  F. 

impetus,  M. 
ius,  N. 
lux,  F. 
mel,  N. 
nem6,2  c. 
nex,  F. 

OS,  N. 

pax,  F. 
rus,  N. 

sol,  M. 
tus,  N. 

vas,  M. 

HETEROCLITES  47 

VARIABLE  NOUNS 

129.  Nouns  may  vary  in  declension,  in  gender,  or  in 
meaning. 

NOUNS  THAT  VARY  IN  DECLENSION 

130.  A  few  nouns  are  partly  of  one  declension  and  partly 
of  another.    Such  nouns  are  called  heteroclitcs. 

a.  Some  nouns  of  four  syllables  vary  between  the  first  and  fifth 
declensions. 

materia  or  materies,  material  saevitia  or  saevities.  ////j 

6.  Some  nouns  vary  between  the  second  and  fourth  declensions, 
having  a  nominative  in  -um  of  the  second  declension  and  another  in 
-us  of  the  fourth :  as,  fiventum  or  gventus,  event.  For  the  declension 
of  domus,  house,  see  §121.//. 

c.  The  name  heterodite  is  applied  also  to  nouns  that  vary  between 
different  stems  of  the  same  declension. 

femur,  \.,  thigh,  gen.  femoris  or  feminis 

iecur,  \.,  liver^  gen.  iocineris,  iocinoris,  or  iecoris 

d.  Neuter  plural  names  of  festivals  in  -ilia  (as,  Situmilia),  ancile, 
s?iiehi,  and  a  few  other  nouns  regularly  of  the  third  declension  have 
the  genitive  plural  in  -ium  or  -finim. 

€.  Among  other  heteroclitcs  of  frequent  occurrence  are : 

epulum,  \.,  feast;  plural  epulae,  F.,  singular  in  sense. 

fames,  f.,  hunger,  regularly  of  the  third  declension,  has  ablative  famS 

of  the  fifth, 
iugerum,  n.,  acre,  generally  of  the  second  declension  in  the  singular, 

and  of  the  third  in  the  plural, 
pecus,  's.,Jlock,  gen.  pecoris,  etc.,  has  also  nom.  pecfl,  abl.  pecfi,  nom. 

and  ace.  plural  pecua.  gen.  pecuum. 
requies,  F.,  rest.  gen.  requietis.  etc.,  has  also  ace.  requiem,  abl.  requiS. 

The  dative  singular  and  the  entire  plural  are  lacking, 
vas,  N.,  Tessel,  gen.  vasis,  etc.,  of  the  third  declension  in  the  singular; 

but  vasa,  vasSrum,  etc..  of  the  second  declension  in  the  plural, 
vesper,  m..  evening,  has  gen.  yesperis  or  vesperi.  ace.  vesperum.  abl. 

vespere  or  vesperd.  loc.  vesperi,  no  plural. 


43 


VARIATIONS  IN  GENDER  AND  MEANING 


NOUNS  THAT  VARY  IN  GENDER 

131.  The  following   nouns   of   the    second   declension  are 
declined  as  either  masculine  or  neuter : 


balteus  or  balteum,  belt 
clipeus  or  clipeum,  shield 


pilleus  or  pilleum,  cap 
vallus  or  vallum,  rajnpa?'t 


132.  The  following  nouns  are  of  one  gender  in  the  singular 
and  of  another  in  the  plural : 


balneum,  n.,  bath 
carbasus,  f.,  sail 
epulum,  yi.,  feast 
frenum,  n.,  «  bit 
iocus,  ^i.^jest 
locus,  M.,  place 
rastrum,  n.,  rake 


balneae,  f.,  bath  house 

carbasa,  x.,  sails 

epulae,  y.^  feast 

freni,  m.,  or  frena,  x.,  bits  or  bridle 

ioca,  N,,  or  ioci,  u.,  Jests 

loca,  N.,  places ;  loci,  m.,  passages^  topics 

rastri,  M.,  or  rastra,  x.,  rakes 


Note.   Balneum  and  epulum  are  also  heteroclites  (§  130). 


NOUNS  THAT  VARY  IN  MEANING 

133.  Some  nouns  have  one  meaning  in  the  singular  and 
another  in  the  plural,  or  are  plural  in  form  and  singular  in 
sense.    Among  these  are  : 


SINGULAR 

aedes,  f.,  temple 
auxilium,  's.,.help 
career,  m.,  prison 

castrum,  \.,fort 

comitium,  y^.,  place  of  assembly 

copia,  Y.,  plenty 

finis,  M.,  end 

fortQna,  y.^  fortune 

gratia,  y.,  favor 

impedimentum,  n.,  hindrance 

littera.  f.,  letter  (of  the  alphabet) 

locus,  M.^  place,  spot 


PLURAL 

aedes,  house 

auxilia,  auxiliary  troops 

carceres,    barriers   or  stalls  (of    a 

race  course) 
castra,  camp 
comitia,  an  election 
copiae,  troops,  resources 
fines,  borders,  tertitory 
fortunae,  possessions 
gratiae,  thanks 
impedimenta,  baggage 
litterae,  epistle,  literature 
loci,  passages  (in  books),  topics 


NAMES  OF  PERSONS 


49 


SINGULAR 

m58,  M.,  habit,  custom 
opera,  f.,  work 
rostrum,  x.,  beak  (of  a  ship) 
yigilia,  f.,  wakefulness 


PLURAL 


mOres,  character 
operae,  day  laborers 
rdstra,  speaker's  platform 
yigiliae,  watchmen,  sentinels 


NAMES  OF  PERSONS 


I.    NAMES  OF  CITIZENS 


134.  In  classical  times  a  Roman  citizen  regularly  had  three 
names  :  ( i )  the  praenOmen,  corresponding  to  our  Christian,  or 
given,  name ;  (2)  the  nOmen,  or  name  of  the  gfins  or  clan ; 
(3)  the  cognomen,  or  name  of  the  family. 

Note.  Thus,  in  Marcus  TuUius  Cicero  we  have  Marcus,  the  praenomen ; 
Tullius,  the  name  of  the  gens ;  and  Cicero,  the  name  of  the  family. 

a.  The  praenOmina  were  never  very  numerous,  and  from  these  the 
several  gentgs  were  in  the  habit  of  selecting  a  few  only,  which  were 
repeated  over  and  over  again.  In  Latin  prose  these  were  regularly 
abbreviated  as  follows : 


A.,  Aulus 
App.,  Appius 
C,  Gaius 
Co.,  Gnaeus 
D.,  Decimus 
K.,  Kaes5 


L.,  Lucius 
M.,  Marcus 
M'.,  Manius 
Mam.,  Mamercus 
N.,  Numerius 
P.,  Publius 


Q.,  Quintus 

Ser.,  Servius 

Sex.,  Sextus 

Sp.,  Spurius 

T.,  Titus 

Ti.  or  Tib.,  Tiberius 


Notp:.  In  the  abbreviations  C.  and  Cn.,  C.  has  the  value  of  G. 
(§  2.  a). 

b.  The  nOmen,  the  name  of  the  ggns  or  clan,  regularly  ends  in 
-iu8,  and  is  really  an  adjective  derived  from  the  name  of  the  real  or 
supposed  founder  of  the  clan. 

NoTK.  So,  according  to  Vergil,  the  Julian  gSns  derived  its  name,  lulius, 
from  liilus,  the  son  of  JEneas.  Usually  a  large  number  of  families  belonged 
to  the  same  gins. 


50  NAMES  OF  PERSONS 

c.  The  cognSmina,  or  family  names,  are  derived  from  common 
nouns  or  adjectives,  applied  originally,  in  many  cases,  because  of  some 
personal  peculiarity  or  occupation,  like  such  English  surnames  as 
White,  Potter,  Miller,  etc. 

Note.  Thus,  Cicero  is  from  cicer,  a  chick-pea  \  Barbatus  signifies 
bearded  \  Scipio,  a  staff;   Yignlus,  a  poUer ;  etc. 

Later  these  names  continued  to  be  used  after  their  original  meaning 
had  ceased  to  apply. 

Sometimes  a  family  in  a  gens  became  sufficiently  numerous  to 
start  a  branch  or  family  of  its  own.  In  that  case  both  the  old  and  the 
new  family  name  would  be  used  and  there  would  be  two  cognomina : 
as,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica. 

d.  Sometimes  a  Roman  was  given  a  name  as  a  mark  of  honor  to 
commemorate  some  great  achievement,  usually  of  a  military  character. 
This  name  (agnomen)  was  added  to  his  three  regular  names. 

Note.  Thus  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  because  of  his  victories  in  Africa, 
received  the  additional  name  Africanus. 

e.  A  son  adopted  into  another  family  took  the  full  name  of  his 
adopted  father,  and  added  to  that  the  name  of  his  own  gens  in  the 
form  of  an  adjective  with  the  ending  -anus. 

Note.  Thus,  one  of  the  sons  of  Lucius  y^milius  Paulus  was  adopted  by 
Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  and  thereupon  took  the  name  Piiblius  Cornelius 
Scipio  Aemilianus. 

IL  NAMES  OF  WOMEN 

135.  Women  had  no  cognomen  and,  in  classical  times,  rarely 
a  praenomen,  but  were  known  only  by  the  feminine  form  of  the 
name  of  their  g6ns. 

Thus,  the  daughter  of  Marcus  TuUius  Cicero  was  TuUia.  A  second 
daughter  would  have  been  called  TuUia  Secunda,  a  third  TuUia  Tertia, 
and  so  on.  Or  of  two  daughters  the  older  would  be  Maior  and  the 
younger  Minor.  Often  the  name  of  a  wife  or  daughter  is  accom- 
panied by  that  of  her  husband  or  father  in  the  genitive :  as,  Caecilia 
Metelli,   Ccccilia,  daughter  of  Metellus. 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES  51 

III.  NAMES  OF  SLAVES 

136.  A  slave  was  merely  a  piece  of  property  and  had  no  legal 
rights.  His  master,  therefore,  could  give  him  any  name  that 
suited  his  fancy.  Often  slaves  were  given  the  names  of  foreign 
potentates  or  were  named  from  the  country  of. their  origin  : 
as,  Pharnac6s,  Syrus  {Syrian),  Afer  {African).  If  set  free,  a  slave 
usually  took  the  praenOmen  and  nOmen  of  his  former  master,  and 
added  his  servile  name  as  cognomen. 

Thus,  Terence,  the  famous  comic  poet,  was  a  slave  in  his  youth 
and  was  given  the  name  Afer,  from  the  country  of  his  birth.  His 
master,  Publius  Terentius  Lucanus,  set  him  free  and  Terence  as- 
sumed the  name  Publius  Terentius  Afer. 

Note.  Sections  134-136  apply  to  the  system  of  naming  employed  dur- 
ing the  classical  jjeriod.  In  later  times  much  confusion  arose  both  in  the 
number  and  in  the  order  of  names. 

ADJECTIVES 

137.  An  adjective  is  a  word  that  describes  or  limits  a  noun, 
and  generally  denotes  quality. 

bonus,  good  malus,  bad  gravis,  heavy  leris,  light 

138.  Adjectives  are,  in  general,  formed  and  declined  like 
nouns,  but  distinguish  gender  by  different  forms  of  the  same 
word.    According  to  their  inflection  they  are  divided  into : 

I.  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 
II.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 

I.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  DECLENSIONS 

139.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  (ft-  and 
o-stems)  are  declined  in  the  masculine  like  dominus,  pucr,  or 
ager ;  in  the  feminine  like  domina  ;  and  in  the  neuter  like  pilum. 


52 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


140.  Masculine 

declined  like  dominus 

(§  84)  : 

bonus, 

bona,  bonum,  good 

Stems 

M. AND  N 

.  bono-,  F.  bona- ; 

,   Base  bon- 

SINGULAR 

IV^ASC. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

Gen. 

boni 

bonae 

boni 

DAT. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

PLURAL 

bonum 

NOM. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

DAT. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonos 

bonas 

bona 

Abl. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

a.  The  genitive  singular  masculine  and  neuter  of  adjectives  in  -ius 
ends  in  -ii  and  the  vocative  masculine  in  -ie;  not  in  -i,  as  in  nouns 
(§  88.  b  and  c). 

b.  The  possessive  pronominal  adjective  mens,  my,  has  mi  in  the 
vocative  masculine  singular. 

141.  Masculine  declined  like  puer  (§85): 

liber,  libera,  liberum,  free 
Stems  M.  and  N.  libero-,  F.  libera- ;   Base  liber- 


SINGULAR 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

liber 

libera 

liberum 

Gen. 

liberi 

liber  ae 

liberi 

DAT. 

liber  6 

liber  ae 

libero 

Ace. 

liberum 

liber  am 

liberum 

Abl. 

liber  6 

libera 

libero 

DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


53 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

liber  i 

liber  ae 

libera 

Gen. 

liber  6rum 

liber  ftrum 

liber  Orum 

DAT. 

liber  is 

liber  is 

liberis 

Ace. 

liberCs 

liber  fts 

libera 

Abl. 

liberie 

liber  is 

liberis 

142.  Masculine  declined  like  ager  (§  85): 

pulcher,  pulchra,  pulchrum,  pretty 
Stems  M.  anu  N.  pulchro-,  F.  pulchra- ;   Hask  pulchr- 


.SINGULAR 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NoM. 

pulcher 

pulchra 

pulchrum 

Gen. 

pulchr  i 

pulchr  ae 

pulchr  i 

DAT. 

pulchrO 

pulchr  ae 

pulchr  6 

Ace. 

pulchrum 

pulchr  am 

pulchrum 

Abl. 

pulchr  0 

pulchra 
plural 

pulchr  6 

NOM. 

pulchr  i 

pulchr  ae 

pulchra 

Gen. 

pulchr  Orum 

pulchr  ftrum 

pulchr  Orum 

DAT. 

pulchr  is 

pulchr  is 

pulchr  is 

Ace. 

pulchr  5s 

pulchr  fts 

pulchra 

AUL. 

pulchr  is 

pulchr  is 

pulchr  is 

a.  Most  adjectives  in  -er  are  declined  like  pulcher,  but  the  following 
are  declined  like  liber : 

asper,  rough        lacer,  torn        miser,  wretched       tener,  tender 

Also  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger  {hearing),  as,  mortifer  {death- 
bearing),  deadly,  ftliger  {wing-bearing),  winged  \  and  sometimes  dexter, 
right.    In  these  the  e  belongs  to  the  stem  (§85.  a). 

b.  The  adjective  satur, /////,  is  declined  satur,  satura,  satunim. 


54 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


The  Nine  Irregular  Adjectives 

143.  The  following  nine  adjectives,  with  their  compounds, 
have  the  genitive  singular  in  -ius  and  the  dative  in  -i  in  all 
genders.   Otherwise  they  are  declined  like  bonus,  liber,  or  pulcher. 


alius,    alia,    aliud,    other,    another 

(of  several) 
alter,  altera,  alterum,  the  one,  the 

other  (of  two) 
unus,  -a,  -um,  one,  alone ;  only  (in 

the  plural) 
uUus,  -a,  -um,  any 


nuUus,  -a,  -um,  none,  no 
solus,  -a,  -um,  alone 
lotus,  -a,  -um,  all,  whole,  entire 
uter,  utra,  utrum,  which  ?  (of  two) 
neuter,    neutra,    neutrum,    neither 
(of  two) 


fl.  The  singular  of  these  is  declined  as  follows : 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

null  us 

nulla 

nullum 

alius 

alia 

aliud 

Gen. 

nulli'us 

nulli'us 

nulli'us 

(ali'us) 

(ali'us) 

(all 'us) 

DAT. 

nulli 

nulli 

nulli 

alii 

alii 

alii 

Ace. 

nullum 

null  am 

nullum 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

Abl. 

null  6 

nulla 

null  6 

alio 

alia 

alio 

The  plural  is  regular. 

ft.  Note  the  peculiar  neuter  skigular  ending  in  -d  of  alius.  The 
genitive  alius  (contracted  from  aliius)  is  rare ;  alterius,  the  genitive 
of  alter,  or  alienus,  aiiother's,  is  commonly  used  instead. 

c.  The  long  i  of  the  genitive  -ius  may  be  short  in  verse ;  so  often 
in  alterius  and  regularly  in  utriusque. 


II.   ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 

144.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  of  the  following 
classes  : 

A.  Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations,  having  a  distinct  form 
for  the  nominative  singular  in  each  gender. 

B.  Adjectives  of  Two  Terminations,  having  the  nominative 
singular  alike  in  the  masculine  and  feminine,  but  a  different 
form  for  the  neuter. 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


55 


C.  Adjectives  of  One  Termination,  having  the  same  form 
for  all  three  genders  in  the  nominative  singular. 

145.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  include  both  con- 
sonant stems  and  i-stems,  but  all  consonant  stems  (except 
comparatives  and  a  few  other  words)  have  assumed  i-  forms 
and  show  the  following  characteristic  terminations : 

-i  in  the  ablative  singular ; 

-ia  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  neuter ; 

-ium  in  the  genitive  plural ; 

-is  as  well  as  -€8  in  the  accusative  plural  masculine  and  feminine. 


A.  Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations 

146.  Adjectives  of  three  terminations  end  in  -cr  in  the  nom- 
inative masculine  singular,  and  the  stem  ends  in  ri-.  They  are 
declined  as  follows : 


ftcer, 

ftcris,  acre, 

keen 

Stem  icri- ;  Base  icr- 

SINGULAR 

Masc. 

Fkm. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

DAT. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

Acc. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

Abl. 

acri 

acri 

PLURAL 

acri 

NoM. 

acres 

acres 

acrU 

Gen. 

acrium 

acrium 

acrium 

DAT. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

Acc. 

acris  (-*8) 

acris  (-es) 

acria 

Abl. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

56 


DECLENSION  OF.  ADJECTIVES 


a.  To  this  class  belong  the  names  of  the  months  in  -ber,  found 
only  in  the  masculine  and  feminine :  as,  October,  Octobris. 

h.  Celer,  celeris,  celere,  swift,  in  which  the  second  e  belongs  to  the 
stem,  is  declined  like  acer.  Volucer,  Joying,  generally  has  volucrum 
in  the  genitive  plural. 

Note.  Some  adjectives  of  this  type,  as  terrestris,  use  the  feminine  forms 
for  the  masculine,  or,  more  rarely,  the  masculine  for  the  feminine.  This 
peculiarity  is  found  especially  in  early. or  late  Latin  and  in  poetry. 

B.  Adjectives  of  Two  Terminations 

147.  Adjectives  of  two  terminations  end  in  -is  in  the  nom- 
inative singular  masculine  and  feminine,  and  the  stem  ends  in 
i-.    They  are  declined  as  follows  : 

omnis,  omne,  every,  all 
Stem  omni-;  Base  omn- 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

omnis 

omne 

omnes 

omnia 

Gen. 

omnis 

omnis 

omnium 

omnium 

DAT. 

-  omni 

omni 

omnibus 

omnibus 

Ace. 

omn  em 

omne 

omnis  (-es) 

omnia 

Abl. 

omni 

omni 

omn  ibus 

omnibus 

Note.    Adjectives  of  this  type  sometimes  have  an   ablative  in  -e  in 
poetry,  very  rarely  in  prose. 

C.  Adjectives  of  One  Termination 

48.  Adjectives  of  one  termination  have  in  the  nominative 
singular  the  same  form  for  all  three  genders.  This  class  in- 
cludes all  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  that  end  neither 
in  -er^  nor  in  -is.  They  are  by  origin  consonant  stems,  but, 
with  few  exceptions,  have  assumed  the  forms  of  i-stems  (§  145). 
Typical  examples  are  shown  on  the  next  page. 

1  Pauper  and  fiber,  adjectives  of  one  termination,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


57 


atrOx, 

,  fierce 

egSns, 

needy 

Stem  or  Basr  atr5c- 

Stem  or  B; 

vsi:  egent- 

.SINGULAR 

M.  and  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

atrox 

atrox 

egens 

egens 

Gen. 

atrocis 

atrocis 

egentis 

egentis 

DAT. 

atroci 

atroci 

egenti 

egenti 

Ace. 

atrocem 

atrox 

egentem 

egens 

Abl. 

atroci  (-e) 

atroci  (-e) 

PLURAL 

egenti  (-6) 

egenti  (-8) 

NOM. 

atrocSs 

atrocia 

egentgs 

egentia 

Gen. 

atrocium 

atrocium 

egentium 

egent  ium 

DAT. 

atrocibus 

atrocibus 

egentibus 

egent  ibus 

Ace. 

atrocis  (-€s) 

atrocia 

egentis  (-6s) 

egent  ia 

Abl. 

atrocibus 

atrocibus 

egentibus 

egent  ibus 

dives,  rich 

vetua 

\,old 

Stem  or 

Base  divit- 

Stem  or  Base  veter- 

singular 

M.  and  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

NoM. 

dives 

dives 

vetus 

vetus 

Gen. 

divitis 

divitis 

veteris 

veteris 

DAT. 

diviti 

diviti 

veteri 

veteri 

Ace. 

divitem 

dives 

veterem 

vetus 

Abl. 

divite 

divite 

plural 

vetere 

vetere 

NOM. 

divitSs 

[ditU] 

vcterCs 

Vetera 

Gen. 

divitum 

divitum 

vetemm 

veterum 

DAT. 

divitibus 

divitibus 

veteribus 

veteribus 

Ace. 

divitis  (-6s ) 

[ditia] 

veterCs 

Vetera 

Abl. 

divitibus 

divitibus 

veteribus 

veteribus 

58  DECLENSION  OF  COMPARATIVES 

a.  Most  adjectives  of  one  termination  may  have  either  -e  or  -i  in 
the  ablative  singular  and  are  declined  like  atrSx  or  egens.  The  follow- 
ing have  regularly  only  -i : 

amens,  ma^  inoj^s,  poor 

anceps,  doubtful  memor,  mindful 

concors,  harmonious  par,  equal 

ingens,  huge  praeceps,  headlong 

b.  Note  that  vetus  is  declined  like  a  pure  consonant  stem.  Of 
similar  declension  are : 

compos,  master  of       pauper,  poor  sospes,  safe 

particeps,  sharing       pubes  (gen.  -eris),  adult      superstes,  surviving 

Note.  Ubeijr/V^,  otherwise  like  vetus,  usually  has  the  ablative  singular  in -i. 

c.  Most  adjectives  of  one  termination  have  -ium  in  the  genitive 
plural.  The  following  have  -um :  dives,  rich ;  inops,  poor ;  memor, 
mindful;  and  adjectives s declined  like  vetus  (cf.  b). 

149.  Present  participles  (ending  in  -ans  and  -ens)  are  declined 
like  egens  ^(§  148).  When  used  as  participles  or  as  nouns,  they  end 
in  -e  in  the  ablative  singular,  but  in  -i  when  used  as  adjectives. 

Caesare  ducente,  under  the  leadership  of  Ccesar  (lit.  Ccesar  leading) 

ab  amante,  by  a  lover 

ab  amanti  regina,  by  the  loving  quee?t 

Declension  of  Comparatives 

150.  Comparatives  are  declined  as  follows  : 

altior,  higher 
Stem  or  Base  altior-  (for  original  altios-) 


M.  AND  F. 

SINGULAR 

Neut. 

NoM.    altior 

altius 

Gen.     altior  is 

altior  is 

DAT.    altior  i 

altior  i 

Ace.     altiorem 

altius 

Abl.     altior  e  (-1) 

altior  e  (-i) 

1  As  nouns  and  in  poetry  present  participles  often  have  -um  in  the  genitive  plural. 


DECLENSION  OF  COMPARATIVES  59 


M.  AND  F. 

PLURAL 

Nelt. 

NOM. 

altiorfis 

altiora 

Gkn. 

altiorum 

altiorum 

Dai-. 

altioribus 

altioribus 

Ace. 
Abl. 

altiorgs  (-is) 
altioribus 

altiora 
altioribus 

a.  All  comparatives  except  plils  are  declined  like  altior. 

b.  Except  for  the  occasional  use  of  -i  in  the  ablative  singular  and 
the  rare  use  of  -is  in  the  accusative  plural,  comparatives  are  declined 
like  vetus  (§  148). 

Note.  The  stem  of  comparatives  originally  ended  in  Ss- ;  but  the  final 
8  regularly  became  r  between  two  vowels  (§  49),  and  so  appears  also  in 
the  nominative  singular  masculine  and  feminine  by  analogy  with  the  other 
cases.  In  the  neuter,  however,  the  original  stem  ending  -6s  (shortened  to 
-OS)  was  retained,  becoming  -us  in  the  classical  period. 

151.  The  declension  of  pliis,  more,  stem  or  base  plflr-  (for 
pltis-),  is  as  follows  : 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

M.  AND  F".  Neut.  M.  and  F.  Neut. 

NoM.    plus  plurgs  pliira 

Gen.    pluris  plurium  plurium 

Dat.    pluribus  pluribus 

Ace.     plus  plurfis  (-is)  plura 

Abl. plure  (rare)  pluribus  pluribus 

fl.  In  the  singular  plus  is  used  only  as  a  neuter  noun.  The  com- 
pound complQres,  several,  sometimes  has  neuter  plural  compluria. 

Indeclinable  Adjectives 

152.  A  few  adjectives  are  indeclinable. 

frugi,  thrifty  nequam,  worthless  necesse,  necessary 

So  also  the  following  pronominal  adjectives  : 

tot,  so  many  quot,  how  Many 

totidem,y</j/  as  many  aliquot,  se7>eral 


6o  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

153.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison  :  the  positive,      , 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative.  ^  \ 

154.  The  comparative  is  regularly  formed  by  adding,  -iof 
(neuter  -ius),  the  superlative  by  adding  -issimus  (-a,  -um),  to  the 
stem  of  the  positive,  which  loses  its  final  vowel. 

Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

alius,  high  (stem  alto-)  alt-ior,  higher  alt-issimus,  highest 

clarus,  bright  (stem  claro-)  clar-ior,  brighter  clar-issimus,  brightest 

brevis,  short  (stem  brevi-)  brev-ior,  shorter  brev-issimus,  shortest 

fortis,  brave  (stem  forti-)  fort-ior,  braver  fort-issimus,  bravest 

atr5x,  fierce  (stem  atroc-)  atroc-ior,  fiercer  atroc-issimus,  fiercest 

prudens,  wise  (stem  prudent-)    prudent-ior,  wiser  prudent-issimus,  wisest 

dives,  rich  (stem  divit-)  divit-ior,  richer  divit-issimus,  richest 

Note.  The  comparative  often  has  the  force  of  too  or  somewhat^  and 
the  superlative  that  of  very :  as,  clarior,  too  bright,  somewhat  bright ; 
clarissimus,  very  bright. 

a.  Participles  used  as  adjectives  are  similarly  compared. 

amans,  loving  (stem  amant-)  amantior  amantissimus 

sciens,  skilled  (stem  scient-)  scientior  scientissimus 

notus,  known  (stem  noto-)  notior  notissimus 

155.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  superlative  by  adding  -rimus 
to  the  nominative  of  the  positive.  The  comparative  is  formed 
regularly. 

pulcher,  pretty  pulchr-ior  pulcher-rimus 

miser,  wretched  miser-ior  miser-rimus 

acer,  keeii  acr-ior  acer-rimus 

celer,  swift  celer-ior  celer-rimus 

a.  Vetus,  old,  and  matiirus,  ripe,  are  compared  as  follows : 

vetus  vetustior  veterrimus 

matiirus  matiirior  maturrimus  or  matiirissimus 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 


6l 


156.  Six  adjectives  in  -lis  form  the  superlative  by  adding 
-limus  to  the  stem,  which  loses  its  final  I.  The  comparative 
is  regular. 

facil-ior  facil-limus 

difficil-ior  difficil-limus 

simil-ior  simil-limus 

dissimil-ior  dissimil-limus 

gracil-ior  gracil-limus 

humil-ior  humil-limus 


facilis,  easy 
difficilis,  difficult 
similis,  similar 
dissimilis,  dissimilar 
gracilis,  slender 
humilis,  low 


157.  Compounds  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  and  -volus  are  compared  as 
follows : 


maledicus,  slanderous 
magnificus,  grand 
benevolus.  kindly 


maledicentior 

magnificentior 

benevolentior 


maledicentissimus 

magnificentissimus 

benevolentissimus 


Irregular  Comparison 

158.  Several  adjectives  are  irregular  in  comparison. 

bonus,  good  melior  optimus 

malus,  bad  peior  pessimus 

magnus,  great  maior  maximus 

parvus,  small  minor  minimus 

multus,  ;////6/r  plus  (§151)         plurimus 

nequam  (indeclinable),  worthless  nequior  nequissimus 

friigi  (indeclinable),  thrifty  friigalior  friigalissimus 

159.  The  following  four  adjectives  have  two  superlatives : 


exterus,  outward  exterior 

inferus,  below  inferior 

posterns,  following  posterior 

superus,  above  superior 


extremus  or  extimus  (rare) 
infimus  or  imus 
postremus  or  postumus  (rare) 
supremus  or  summus 


a.  These  adjectives  are  rare  in  the  positive  except  when  used  as 
nouns  in  the  masculine  plural : 


cxteri,  foreigners 
infer!,  the  gods  below 


poster!,  posterity 
superl,  the  gods  ab<n>e 


62 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 


Defective  Comparison 

160.   Some  adjectives  lack  one  or  more  of  the  degrees  of 

comparison. 

a.  Adjectives  without  the  Positive. 

citerior,  hither 
deterior,  worse 
interior,  inner 
ocior,  swifter 
potior,  preferable 
prior,  former 
propior,  nearer 
ulterior,  farther 


citimus,  hithermost 
deterrimus,  wo?'st 
intimus,  inmost 
ocissimus,  swiftest 
potissimus,  most  importafit 
primus,  first 
proximus,  nearest 
ultimus,  farthest 


Note.   The  adjective  propinquus,  near,  is  used  as  the  positive  of  propior. 
I.  Potis,  able,  the  positive  of  potior,  occurs  in  early  Latin. 


b.  Adjectives  without  the  Comparative. 


f  alsus,  false 
meritus,  merited 
novus,  new 
pius,  dutiful 
sacer,  sacred 


falsissimus 
meritissimus 

novissimus,  last  (in  order) 
piissimus  (rare) 
sacerrimus 


I.  For  the  comparative  and  superlative  of  novus,  new,  the  forms 
recentior  and  recentissimus  are  sometimes  used.  For  the  comparison  of 
vetus,  old,  see  §  155.  rt. 

c.  Adjectives  without  the   Superlative.     Many  adjectives  ending 

in  -ills  or  -bills  (as,  agilis,   probabilis)  have  no  superlative.     Also 
the  following : 

adulescentior  

alacrior  

longinquior  

obliquior  — 

propior  (propinquior)         

salutarior  

vicinior  


adulescens,  young 
alacer,  active 
longinquus,  long 
obliquus,  sidelong 
propinquus,  near 
saliitaris,  healthful 
vicinus,  near 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  63 

I.  The  adjectives    iuvenis,  youtti;,   and   senex.  <>///.   are   compared   as 
follows : 

iuvenis  iunior  or  iuvenior  minimus  natu 

senex  senior  maximus  natu 

In  these  superlatives  natu  is  the  ablative  of  respect  (§  478)  and  is  often 
omitted. 


ADJECTIVES  NOT  COMPARED 

161.  Some  adjectives  are  not  compared.    Such  are  especially : 
a.  Adjectives  denoting  material. 

aureus,  golden  ferreus.  iroti  ligneus.  ivoodeti,  etc. 

h.  Adjectives  expressing  personal  relationship, 
maternus,  maternal  ixaXtxmxA,/ratenntl,  etc. 

c.  Adjectives  expressing  relations  of  time. 

hodiernu9,  0/ to-day     aestivus,  0/ summer     sempitemus,  e^'erlasting^  etc. 

d.  Ihe  following  special  words : 

almus.  nourishing  immemoT,/orgetJ'ul  miitus,  dumd 

claudus,  lame  impar.  unequal  nefastus,  impious 

curvus,  cun>ed  mediocris,  tnedium  rudis,  rough 

ferns,  wild  minis,  ivonderful  vagus,  wandering 

Also  most  adjectives  compounded  of  verbs  or  substantives. 

Adjectives  Compared  with  magis  and  maxime 

162.  Many  adjectives,  instead  of  using  terminations,  are 
compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs  magis.  vtore,  and  maxime, 
most,  followed  by  the  positive. 

This  method  is  especially  common  with  participles,  compound 
adjectives,  and  adjectives  ending  in  -us  preceded  by  a  vowel : 
as,  id5neus,  fit,  magis  iddneus,  maximS  iddneus. 


64 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 
NUMERALS 


163.  The  Latin  numerals  are  of  two  classes :  adjectives  and 
adverbs.  Numeral  adjectives  include  cardinals^  ordinals,  and 
distributives. 

a.  Cardinals  answer  the  question  how  many  ? 

unus,  one  duo,  two 

b.  Ordinals,  derived  in  most  cases  from  the  cardinals,  answer  the 
question  which  in  order  "i 

primus,  yfrj-/  secundus,  second 

c.  Distributives  answer  the  question  hoiv  many  at  a  time?  how 
many  each  ? 

singuli,  o?te  by  one  bini,  two  by  two 

I.  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 


164.  The  cardinal,  ordinal,  and  distributive  numeral  adjec- 

ves  are  shown  in 

the  following  table : 

Cardinals 

Ordinals 

Distributives 

I.  unus 

primus 

singuli 

2.  duo 

secundus 

bini 

3.  tres 

tertius 

terni,  trini 

4.  quattuor 

quartus 

quaterni 

5.  quinque 

quintus 

quini 

6.  sex 

sextus 

seni 

7.  septem 

Septimus 

septeni 

8.  octo 

octavus 

octoni 

9.  novem 

nonus 

noveni 

10.  decern 

decimus 

deni 

II.  undecim 

iindecimus 

undeni 

12.  duodecim 

duodecimus 

duodeni 

13.  tredecim 

tertius  decimus 

terni  deni 

14.  quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaterni  d6n! 

15.  quindecim 

quintus  decimus 

quini  d6ni 

NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 


65 


Cardinals 

ORDIfJALS 

Distributives 

16. 

sMecim 

sextus  decimus    • 

sgni  dgni 

17. 

septendecim 

Septimus  decimus 

septgni  dgni 

18. 

duodeviginti 

duodevicgsimus 

dujdgvicgni 

19. 

Qndgviginti 

undSvic6simu8 

undgvicgni 

20. 

viginti 

vicgsimus 

vicgni 

viginti  unus 

vicSsimus  primus 

vicgni  singuli 

21. 

or 

or 

or 

finus  et  viginti 

iinus  et  vicSsimus 

singuli  et  vicftni 

28. 

duodetriginta 

duodgtricgsimus 

duodgtricgni 

29. 

undgtriginta 

undetricgsimus 

undgtricgni 

30- 

triginta 

tricfisimus 

tricgni 

40. 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadraggni 

SO- 

quinquaginta 

quinquaggsimus 

quinquageni 

60. 

sexagina 

sexagSsimus 

sexaggni 

70. 

septuagintfi 

septuaggsimus 

septuaggni 

80. 

octCginta 

oct5ggsimus 

octOggni 

90. 

nOnaginta 

nOnaggsimus 

nOnaggni 

100. 

centum 

centgsimus 

centgni 

lOI. 

centum  (et)  unus 

centgsimus  (et)  primus 

centgni  singuli 

200. 

ducenti 

ducentgsimus 

ducgni 

300. 

trecenti 

trecentgsimus 

trecgni 

400. 

quadringenti 

quadringentgsimus 

quadringgni 

500. 

quingenti 

quingentgsimus 

quinggni 

600. 

sescenti 

sescentgsimus 

sescgni 

700. 

septingenti 

septingentgsimus 

septinggni 

800. 

octingenti 

octingentgsimus 

octinggni 

900. 

nOngenti 

nOngentgsimus 

ndnggni 

1,000. 

mille 

millgsimus 

singula  milia 

2,000. 

duo  milia 

bis  millgsimus 

bina  milia 

10,000. 

decem  milia 

decigns  millgsimus 

dgna  milia 

00,000. 

centum  milia 

centigns  millgsimus 

centgna  milia 

Note  t.  The  ordinals  in  -esimus.  as,  vicesimas,  tricgsimus,  etc.,  are 
spelled  vicensimus.  trfcensimus,  etc.,  in  early  Latin. 

Note  2.  The  plural  of  mille.  thousand^  is  mQlia  or  milia.  The  spelling 
with  one  1  is  preferred  in  Latin  of  the  best  period. 


66 


DECLENSION  OF  NUMERALS 


165.  Numbers  above  100,000  are  expressed  by  placing 
numeral  adverbs  of  multiplication  before  centena  milia  for  the 
cardinals,  and  before  centiens  millgsimus  for  the  ordinals. 

Thus,  1,000,000  is  expressed  deciens  centena  milia  (ten  times  a 
hundred  thousand^,  cardinal ;  deciens  centiens  millesimus  {ten  times  the 
hundred  thousandth),  ordinal. 

Declension  of  Numerals 

166.  Of  the  cardinals  only  unus,  duo,  tres,  the  hundreds 
above  one  hundred,  and  mille  used  as  a  noun,  are  declined. 


a.  Unus,  one  or  only,  is  one  of  the  nine  irregular  adjectives  (§ 
and  is  declined  as  follows : 


43) 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

unus 

una 

unum 

Gen. 

unT'us 

>     unrus 

unfus 

DAT. 

unT 

uni 

uni 

Ace. 

unum 

.    unam 

unum 

Abl. 

uno 

una 

uno 

The  plural  is  regular,  and  has  the  meaning  alotie  or  only,  unless 
used  with  nouns  plural  in  form  and  singular  in  sense  (§  133):  as, 
una  castra,  one  camp ;  uni  mores,  one  set  of  habits. 

b.  Duo  and  tres  are  declined  as  follows : 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

tres 

tria 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum 

trium 

trium 

DAT. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

Ace. 

duos  (duo) 

duas 

duo 

tres  (tris) 

tria 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

I .  Ambd,  doth,  is  declined  like  duo,  but  its  final  0  is  long. 

c.  The  hundreds  above  one  hundred  are  declined  like  the  plural  of 
bonus :  as,  ducenti,  -ae,  -a,  two  hundred. 


USES  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES  67 

d.  Mille  in  the  singular  is  regularly  used  as  an  adjective  and  is 
indeclinable. 

mille  modis,  ///  <7  thousand  ways 

cum  mille  hominibus,  with  a  thousand  men 

Mille  in  the  plural  (milia)  is  used  as  a  neuter  noun,  is  followed  by 
the  genitive  of  the  objects  enumerated,  and  is  declined  as  follows : 

NoM.  mllia 

Gen.  milium 

Dat.  milibus 

Ace.  milia 

Abl.  milibus 

E.XAMPLES :  decern  milia  hominum  misit,  he  sent  ten  thousand  men 

(lit.  ten  thousands  of  men) 
castra  milia  passuum  tria  absunt,  the  camp  is  three  miles  ti^(lit.  three 

thousands  of  paces) 

Note  i  .  The  singular  mille  is  rarely  used  as  a  noun  in  the  nominative 
and  accusative :  as,  mille  hominum  misit,  he  sent  a  thousand  (of)  men. 

NoTK  2.  When  a  declinable  numeral  follows  milia.  the  form  of  expres- 
sion is  as  follows :  duo  milia  ducenti  milites.  ur  duo  milia  militum  et  ducenti, 
2200  soldiers. 

167.  The  ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus,  and  the  distribu- 
tives like  the  plural  of  bonus  (ij  140). 


Pkculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Cardinals  and  Ordinals 

168.  In  numbers  below  icx),  if  units  precede  tens,  et  is 
generally  inserted ;  otherwise  et  usually  is  omitted  :  as,  duo  et 
viginti,  tzvo  and  twenty y  or  viginti  duo,  twenty-two, 

169.  Compound  numerals  above  100  generally  have  the 
largest  denomination  first,  and  the  others  follow  without  et ; 
but  et  may  be  inserted  between  the  two  highest  denominations : 
as,  mille  (et)  septingenti  sexigintS  quattuor,  Z/^-/. 


68  USES  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 

170.  The  numerals  i8  and  19  are  generally  expressed  by 
duodeviginti  {two  from  twenty)  and  undeviginti  {o7te  from  twenty) ^ 
rarely  by  octodecim  and  novendecim. 

Similarly,  the  other  numerals  ending  in  8  and  9  are  usually 
expressed  by  the  subtraction  of  two  and  07te  rather  than  by  the 
addition  of  eight  and  7iine  respectively :  as,  duodeoctoginta  rather 
than  septuaginta  octo,  yS. 

171.  When  referring  to  two  persons  or  things,  instead  of 
using  primus  and  secundus,  Latin  generally  employs  unus  and 
alter  respectively, 

erant  duo  consules,  unus  Cicero  alter  Antonius,  there  were  two  consuls^ 
one  Cicero^  the  other  A?itony 

a.  The  usual  Latin  expressions  for  twejtty first,  thirty  fifth,  etc.,  are 
vicesimus  primus,  tricesimus  quintus,  etc. 

172.  Unus,  when  part  of  a  compound  number,  is  used  in  the 
singular,  and  agrees  with  its  noun  in  gender  and  case  :  as,  viginti 
milites  et  iinus,  or  unus  et  viginti  milites,  twenty-one  soldiers. 

Uses  of  the  Distributive  Numerals 

173.  Distributive  numerals  are  used : 

a.  To  express  so  rnany  apiece,  so  many  at  a  time :  as,  censores  bini 
in  singulas  civitates,  tzvo  censors  to  each  state. 

b.  To  express  multiplication  :  as,  bis  bina  sunt  quattuor,  twice  two 
are  four. 

c.  With  nouns  that  are  plural  in  form  and  usually  singular  in 
sense :  as,  bina  castra,  two  camps. 

With  such  nouns  uni,  not  singuli,  is  used  for  07ie,  and  trini,  not  temi, 
for  three :  as,  una  castra,  one  camp ;  trina  castra,  three  camps. 

d.  With  nouns  denoting  objects  that  go  in  pairs  or  sets. 

bini  boves,  a  yoke  of  oxen  bina  hastilia,  a  pair  of  spears 

e.  By  the  poets  instead  of  cardinal  numbers:  as,  quina  armenta 

(Vergil),  fve  herds. 


NUMERAL  ADVERBS 
Fractions 


69 


174.  Fractions  are  expressed,  as  in  English,  by  cardinals  in 
the  numerator  and  ordinals  in  the  denominator.  The  feminine 
gender  is  used  to  agree  with  pars  expressed  or  understood. 

duae  septimae  (partes),  two  sevenths 
quinque  octavae  (partes),  yf?/^  eighths 

a.  When  the  numerator  is  one,  it  is  omitted  and  pars  is  expressed 
with  the  denominator. 

dimidia  pars  (or  dimidium),  one  ha  If 
tertia  pars,  one  third 
quarta  pars,  one  fourth 

b.  When  the  denominator  is  but  one  greater  than  ilic  numerator, 
the  denominator  is  omitted  and  partes  is  used  with  the  numerator. 


duae  partes,  two  thirds 


tres  partes,  three  fourths 


Example:    dimidia  pars  et  tres   partes  et  septem   duodecimae   sunt 
unum  et  quinque  partes,  ^  +  j  +  iV  ~  '«• 


175.  Numeral 
Jioiv  many  times 

1.  semel,  once 

2.  bis,  twice 

3.  ter,  thrift 

4.  qua  ter 

5.  quinquiSns 

6.  sexigns 

7.  septiSns 

8.  octigns 

9.  novigns 
10.  decigns 


II.  NUMERAL  ADVERBS 


adverbs    answer    the    question    ho7v   often? 


1 1 .  undecigns 

12.  duodecigns 

13.  terdecigns  30. 

14.  quaterdecigns  40. 

15.  quindecigns  50. 

16.  sgdecigns  60. 

17.  septigns  decigns  70. 

18.  octigns  decigns  80. 

19.  novigns  decigns  90. 

20.  vicigns  100. 


fvicigns  semel 

\  semel  et  vicigns 

tricigns 

quadr&gigns 

quinqu&gigns 

sexagigns 

septufigigns 

octOgigns 

nOnAgiens 

centigns 


The  termination  -igs  is  often  used  instead  of  -Iftns :  as,  sexigs. 


70 


ROMAN  NUMERALS 


a.  The  accusative  or  ablative  neuter  singular  of  the  ordinals  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  numeral  adverb. 


primum,y27r  the  first  time 
primo,  at  first 


SQCxmAo,  for  the  second  tifne 

tertio  or  ttxtiw.va.,  for  the  third  time,  etc. 


The  Roman  Numeral  System 
176.   The  following  characters  are  used  as  Roman  numerals  : 


I.  I 

IS- 

XV 

100. 

C 

2.     11 

16. 

XVI 

200. 

cc 

3-  in 

17. 

XVII 

300. 

ccc 

4.  IIII  or  IV 

18. 

XVIII 

400. 

cccc 

5-  V 

19. 

XVIIII  or 

XIX 

500. 

D 

6.  VI 

20. 

XX 

600. 

DC 

7.  VII 

21. 

XXI 

700. 

Dce 

8.  VIII 

30- 

XXX 

■  800. 

DCCC 

9.  Villi  or  IX 

40. 

XXXX  or 

XL 

900. 

DCCCC 

0.  X 

50. 

L 

1,000. 

CD,  00,  or  CO 

I.  XI 

60. 

LX 

' 

5,000. 

^orV 

2.    XII 

70. 

LXX 

10,000. 

(§)  orX 

3.  XIII 

80. 

LXXX 

100,000. 

#  or  C 

4.  XIIII  or  XIV 

90. 

LXXXXorXC 

1,000,000. 

m 

a.  The  original  numerical  symbols  were  representations  of  the 
fingers,  as,  I,  one  finger ;  II,  two  fingers ;  V,  the  hand,  iorfive  (only 
the  thumb  and  little  finger  being  drawn) ;  and  X,  the  two  hands  crossed, 
for  ten.  X,  however,  is  sometimes  regarded  as  an  Etruscan  symbol 
for  ten,  the  upper  half  of  which  was  used  for  five.  To  these  original 
symbols  were  added  the  three  Chalcidic  (§2)  aspirates,  ch,  V  (altered 
into  vL/,  ±,  L),  for  50;  th,  O  (altered  into  C),  for  100;  and///,  CD 
(broken  into  (X),  CD),  for  iqoo.  The  fact  that  the  original  numerals 
I,  V,  X  were  identical  in  form  with  certain  letters  of  the  alphabet  no 
doubt  assisted  the  changes  of  V  to  L,  and  of  O  to  C,  the  latter  change 
being  favored  also  by  the  fact  that  C  was  the  first  letter  of  centum. 
In  a  similar  way  the  second  half  of  CD,  1000,  written  D,  was  used 
for  500. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  71 

&.  At  an  early  date  milia  passuum  (miies)  was  represented  by 
M .  P,  but  the  separate  use  of  M  for  the  word  mille  or  milia  is  not 

found  before  the  second  century  of  our  era. 

c.  While  CD  denotes  1000,  the  addition  of  a  second  circle  outside 
the  first  makes  it  mean  10,000  (^),  and  of  a  third,  100,000  {%). 

d.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Republic  the  thousands  were  denoted 
by  drawing  a  line  above  the  numeral :  as,  V,  5000.  By  adding  lateral 
lines  the  numeral  was  multiplied  by  100,000:  as,  fvi,  500,000. 

e.  The  symbols  I  and  X,  when  placed  at  the  left  of  a  higher 
number,  are  to  be  subtracted  from  it;  but  symbols  like  IIII,  Villi, 
XII II  are  earlier  and  more  usual  than  IV,  IX,  XIV.  Such  symbols 
as  CM  for  900,  MCM  for  1900,  are  modem.  The  Romans  wrote 
DCCCC  for  900,  MDCCCC  for  1900. 

PRONOUNS 

177.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun.  Pronouns 
and  their  corresponding  pronominal  adjectives  are  divided  into 
the  following  eight  classes : 

I.  Personal  V.  Intensive 

II.  Reflexive  VI.  Relative 

III.  Possessive  VII.  Interrogative 

IV.  Demonstrative  VIII.  Indefinite 

178.  Pronouns  have  special  forms  of  declension  differing  in 
some  respects  from  those  of  nouns. 

I.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

179.  The  personal  pronouns  are : 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

First  Pers.         ego,  /  nOs.  7oe 

Second  Pers.      tu,  t/iou  or  you  v6s,  ir  or  you 

Pronouns  of  the  third  person,  he,  she,  it,  they,  are  wanting,  a 
demonstrative  or  relative  being  used  instead. 


72  REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS 

180.   The  personal  pronouns  ego,  /,  and  tu,  tJioii  or  yoii^  are 
declined  as  follows  : 

First  Person  Second  Person 

SINGULAR  PLURAL  SINGUJ^AR  PLURAL 


NOM. 

ego 

nos 

tu 

vos 

Gen. 

mei 

nostrum,  nostri 

tui 

vestrum,  vestri 

DAT. 

mihi  (mi) 

nobis 

tibi 

vobis 

Ace. 

me 

nos 

te 

VOS 

Abl. 

me 

nobis 

te 

vobis 

a.  Emphatic  forms  of  tu  are  t^ute  and  tutemet.  The  other  forms 
of  the  personal  pronouns,  except  the  genitive  plural,  may  be  made 
emphatic  by  adding  -met  as  an  enclitic  (§  39) :  as,  egomet,  vosmet. 

6.  The  accusative  and  ablative  forms  me  and  te  are  sometimes 
doubled,  or  reduplicated  :  as,  meme,  tete. 

c.  The  preposition  cum,  with,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a 
personal  pronoun,  is  added  to  it  as  an  enclitic  (§  39) :  as,  mecum, 
tecum,  nobiscum,  vobiscum. 

d.  In  early  Latin  the  accusative  and  ablative  singular  forms  were 
med,  ted.  Instead  of  vestrum  and  vestri  the  forms  vostrum  and  vostri 
occur  in  early  and  late  Latin. 

II.  REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS 

181.  Reflexive  pronouns  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence 
or  clause  in  which  they  stand  :  as,  he  loves  himself,  ive  love 
ourselves. 

182.  Reflexive  pronouns  have  no  nominative.  In  the  other 
cases  the  reflexives  of  the  first  and  second  person  are  the 
same  as  the  personal  pronouns. 

ego  me  video,  I  see  myself 

n6s  nobis  persuademus,  we  persuade  ourselves 

tu  te  vides,  yott  see  yourself 

vos  vobis  persuadetis,  you  persuade  yourselves 


POSSESSIVE  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  73 

183.  The  reflexive  of  the  third  person  has  a  special  form, 
the  same  for  both  singular  and  plural.    It  is  declined  thus : 

sui,  of  himself ,  herself,  itself,  themselves 
I )  AT.    sibi,  to  ox  for  himself,  herself  itself,  themselves 
Aci-.    86,  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves 
Abl.    86  (with  fi,  tic),  from,  etc.,  himself  herself  itself  themselves 

a.  In  the  accusative  and  ablative  the  reduplicated  form  8€86  occurs. 
Emphatic  forms  in  -met  are  made  as  in  the  personal  pronouns 
(§  180. </).  i'he  preposition  cum  is  added  enclitically  to  the  ablative: 
as,  86cum  (cf.  §  180.  r). 

b.  In  early  Latin  the  form  sM  occurs  in  the  accusative  and 
ablative. 

III.    POSSESSIVE  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 

184.  The  possessives  are  pronominal  adjectives  of  the  first 
and  second  declensions,  and  are  similarly  declined  (cf.  §§  140, 
142).  They  are  : 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

First  Pers.       meus,  -a,  -um,  my  no8ter,  -tra,  -trum,  our 

Second  Pers.    tuu8,  -a,  -um,  thy,  your  ve8ter,  -tra,  -trum,  your 

Third  Pers.      8UU8,  -a,  -um,  his,  her,  its  8uus,  -a,  -um,  their 

a.  Suu8  is  used  only  as  a  reflexive  possessive  adjective. 

puer  patrem  suum  videt,  the  boy  sees  his  {omw)  father 

When  not  reflexive,  his,  her,  and  its  are  usually  expressed  by  eiu8, 
the  genitive  singular  of  is ;  and  their  by  e«rum,  m.  and  N.,  and  earum, 
K.,  the  genitive  plural  of  ia. 

puer  patrem  eius  videt,  the  boy  sees  his  (not  his  o^n) father 

pueri  patres  eorum  vident,  the  boys  see  their  (not  their  own)  fathers 

b.  The  vocative  singular  masculine  of  meus  is  regularly  ml  (rarely 
meua). 

c.  Emphatic  forms  in  -ptc  are  found  in  the  ablative  singular :  as, 
8u5pte. 


74 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 


IV.    DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 

185.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  hie,  iste,  ille,  is,  and 
idem.  They  are  used  to  point  out  a  person  or  thing,  and  stand 
either  alone  as  protiouns  or  with  nouns  as  pronominal  adjectives. 

186.  The  demonstratives  hie,  iste,  and  ille  are  used  to  make 
a  distinct  reference  to  place  or  time,  and  are  called  demonstra- 
tives of  the  first,  second,  and  third  person  respectively.    Thus  : 

First  person,  hie,  this,  he,  near  the  speaker 

Second  person,  iste,  that,  he,  near  the  person  addressed 

Third  person,  ille,  that,  he,  remote  from  both 

187.  The  demonstrative  is,  he,  this,  that,  refers  to  objects 
either  far  or  near,  and  makes  no  definite  reference  to  place  or 
time,    idem,  the  same,  is  a  compound  of  is. 

Declension  of  the  Demonstratives 


188. 

hit 

;,  this,  he 

ille,  that  he 

SINGULAR 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fenl 

Neut. 

NOM. 

hie 

haee 

hoe 

ille 

ilia 

illud 

Gen. 

huius 

huius 

huius 

illius 

illius 

illius 

DAT. 

huie 

huie 

huie 

illi 

illi 

illi 

Ace. 

hune 

hane 

hoe 

ilium 

illam 

illud 

Abl. 

h5c 

hae 

hoe 

PLURAL 

illo 

ilia 

illo 

NOM. 

hi 

hae 

haec 

illi 

illae 

ilia 

Gen. 

horum 

harum 

horum 

illorum 

illarum 

illorum 

DAT. 

his 

his 

his 

illis 

illis 

illis 

Acc. 

hos 

has 

haec 

illos 

iUas 

ilia 

Abl. 

his 

his 

his 

illis 

illis 

illis 

Note.    An  earlier  form  of  ille  is  oUus,  of  which  several  forms  occur. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 


75 


a.  Hie  is  a  compound  of  the  stem  ho-  with  the  demonstrative 
enclitic  -cc,  which  in  some  forms  loses  its  vowel  and  in  others  is 
wholly  dropped.  The  same  enclitic  is  sometimes  added  for  emphasis 
to  forms  of  hie  ending  in  -s :  as.  huiusee.  hasce,  etc. ;  likewise  to  cer- 
tain forms  of  iste  and  ille :  as,  istic,  istanc,  illaec,  illOe. 

b.  The  forms  hoius  (for  huius),  hoic  j^for  huie),  hisce  (for  hi),  and 
hibus  (for  his)  occur  in  early  Latin. 

189.  Iste,  t/tat,  he,  is  declined  like  iUe  (§  1 88). 


190. 

is,  th 

/s,  that,  he 

s 

INGULAR 

PLURAL 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Num. 

is 

ea 

id 

ii  or  ei 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

eius 

eius 

eius 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

DAT. 

ei 

ei 

ei 

iis  or  eis 

iis  or  eis 

iis  or  eis 

Ace. 

eum 

eam 

id 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Abl. 

eo 

ea 

eo 

iis  or  eis 

iis  or  eis 

iis  or  eis 

a.  The  forms  ii  and  iis  are  preferred  to  ei  and  eis,  and  are  pro- 
nounced and  sometimes  written  as  monosyllables,  i  and  is. 

191.  idem,  the  same 

SINGULAR  PLURAL 

Masc.        Fem.  Neut.  Ma.s(  .  Fem.  Neut. 

NoM.  idem        eSdem      idem  idem  (eidem)  eaedem       eidem 

Gen.   eius'dem  eius'dem  eius'dem  eorun'dem      carun'dem  eorun'dcm 
DAT.   eidem      eidem      eidem  isdem  or  eisdem 

Ace.   eundem   eandem   idem  eosdem  easdem       e&dem 

Abl.   eodem      eadem      eodem  isdem  or  eisdem 


a.  idem  is  a  compound  of  the  demonstrative  is  with  the  indeclin- 
able suflfi.x  -dem.    It  is  sometimes  called  the  identifying  pronoun. 

ft.  The  plural  forms  idem  and  isdem  are  often  written  iidem, 
iisdem,  but  the  pronunciation  remains  dissyllabic. 


76 


INTENSIVE  AND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 


V.    THE  INTENSIVE  PRONOUN 

192.  The  intensive  pronoun  is  ipse,  self,  and  is  used  either  ad- 
jectively  to  strengthen  another  word  or  as  an  emphatic  pronoun. 

Ipse  is  compounded  of  is  and  -pse  (a  suffix  of  uncertain  origin), 
and  is  decHned  hke  ille  (§  i88)  except  that  it  has  ipsum  in  the 
nominative  and  accusative  neuter  singular. 

ipse,  self 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NOM. 

ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

ipsi 

ipsae 

ipsa 

Gen. 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

DAT. 

ipsi 

ipsi 

ipsi 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

Ace. 

ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

Abl. 

ipso 

ipsa 

ipso 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

VI.    THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN 

193.   The  relative  pronoun  is  qui,  who,  which,  that.    It  is 
declined  as  follows  : 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

NoM. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

cuius 

cuius 

cuius 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

DAT. 

cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Ace. 

quem 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abl. 

quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

a.  An  old  ablative  form  qui  (for  quo,  qua,  or  quibus)  is  found, 
especially  in  the  combination  quicum,  with  which  or  with  whom. 

b.  Quis  is  sometimes  used  for  quibus  as  either  dative  or  ablative 
plural. 

c.  Early  forms  quoius  (for  cuius)  and  quoi  (for  cui)  continued  to 
be  used  as  late  as  Cicero. 

d.  The  preposition  cum  is  added  enclitically  to  all  forms  of  the 
ablative:  as,  quacum,  quibuscum  (cf.  §  i8o.  c). 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  ^^ 

194.  The  following  are  indefinite  relatives : 

quisquis     1      , 

.  ywhoer'er 

quicumque  J 

utercumque,  whichever  (of  two) 

fl.  In  quicumque  and  utercumque  only  the  first  part  is  declined. 
Poets  often  separate  -cumque  and  its  relative  (§  992). 

b.  Of  quisquis  the  only  forms  in  corhmon  use  are  quisquis,  quicquid 
(quidquid),  and  quOqufi. 

VII.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 

195.  The  interroggitive  pronouns,  substantive  and  adjective, 
are : 

a.  quis,  who  ?  quid,  what  1  substantive. 

h.  qui,  quae,  quod,  what  kind  off  ivhat  sort  of?  which  t  what  / 
adjective. 

c.  uter,  utra,  utrum,  which  1  {pi  two  persons  or  things)  either 
substantive  or  adjective. 

196.  The  interrogative  pronoun  quis,  who?  quid,  ivliatf  is 
declined  in  the  singular  as  follows  : 

M.  AND  F.  Neut. 

NoM.      quis  quid 

Gen.       cuius  cuius 

Dat.       cui  cui 

Ace.       quern  quid 

Abl.       quo  quo 

The  plural  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  relative. 

197.  The  interrogative  pronominal  adjective  qui,  quae,  quod 
is  declined  throughout  like  the  relative. 

a.  Qui  is  sometimes  used  for  quis :  as,  qui  nCminat  m6  ?  who  calls 
my  name  ?  and  quis,  with  words  denoting  persons,  is  apparently  used 
like  an  adjective :  as,  quis  homO  ?  ivhat  man  ?  but  the  substantive 
that  follows  is  best  regarded  as  in  apposition.  Qui  homO?  means 
what  kind  of  man  f 


78 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 


b.  Early  forms  of  the  interrogative  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
relative  (cf.  §  193.  c).  The  old  ablative  qui  is  used  chiefly  as  an  adverb 
meaning  /low  ? 

c.  The  preposition  cum  is  added  enclitically  to  the  ablative,  sin- 
gular and  plural,  as  with  the  personal  and  relative  pronouns :  as, 
quocum,  quibus'cum. 

d.  The  forms  of  quis  and  qui  may  be  made  emphatic  by  adding 
the  enclitic  -nam. 

quisnam,  7a/io,  pray  ?  quidnam,  what,  pray  ? 

198.  Uter,  utra,  utrum,  which  ?  (of  two  persons  or  things) 
is  declined  like  pulcher,  except  that  the  genitive  singular  has 
the  termination  -ius  (utrius)  and  the  dative  singular  -i  (utri). 
Cf.  §  143. 

199.  Other  interrogative  pronominal  adjectives  are  : 

quails,  quale  (declined  like  omnis),  of  what  kindf 
quantus,  -a,  -um  (declined  like  bonus),  how  great  f 
quot  (indeclinable),  how  many  ? 

VIII.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 


200.  The  most  common  indefinite  pronouns  and  pronominal 
adjectives,  with  the  general  meaning  of  some  one^  aiiy  oiie^  some- 
thing, anythiftgy  some,  any,  are  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


Masculine 
quis,  some  one,  any  one 

qui 

aliquis,  some  one,  afiy  07ie 

aliqui 

'^uidam,  a  cetiain  person 

quidam 


Feminine  Neuter 

quid,      something,     a?iything 
(substantive) 
qua  or  quae    quod,  some,  any  (adjective) 

aliquid,   something,  anything 
(substantive) 
aliqua  aliquod,  some,  any  (adjective) 

quiddam,  a  certain  thing  (sub- 
stantive) 
quaedam  quoddam,  a  certain  (adjective) 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 


79 


Masculine 
qui  vis    "\any  one 
quilibetj    you  loish 
quivis 
quilibet 
quisquam,  any  one 

quisque,  each  one 
quisque 

quispiam,  any  one 
quispiam 


Feminine 


quaevis 
quaelibet 


quaeque 


quaepiam 


Neuter 
quidvis    \  anything    you     wish 
quidlibet  J      (substantive) 
quodvis    "yany  you  wish  (adjec- 
quodlibet  j       tive) 
quicquam  or  ^  anything  (substan- 
quidquam      J       tive) 
quidque,  each  thing  (substantive) 
quodque,  each,  ei'ery  (adjective) 
quidpiam,  anything  (substantive) 
quodpiam,  any  (adjective) 


a.  Observe  that  all  the  indefinites  are  compounds  of  quis  or  qui. 

b.  The  indefinites  quis  and  qui  are  declined  like  the  interrogative 
and  relative  pronouns,  but  usually  have  qua  for  quae  except  in  the 
feminine  nominative  plural.    The  same  is  true  of  aliquis  and  aliqui. 

Note.  Occasionally  quis  and  aliquis  are  used  adjectively  and  qui  and 
aliqui  substantively. 

c.  In  quidam  the  m  in  the  accusative  singular  and  genitive  plural 
is  changed  to  n  before  d :  as,  quendam,  quOrundam. 

d.  Quisquam  has  no  plural,  and  the  plural  of  quispiam  is  very  rare. 
€.  The  indefinites  ecquis,  any  one  (substantive),  and  ecqui,  any 

(adjective),  are  generally  interrogative.  They  are  declined  like  aliquis 
and  aliqui  (§  200.  ^),  but  are  rare  in  the  plural. 

/.  The  indefinites  have  the  same  early  forms  as  the  relative  and 
interrogative  (cf.  §§  193.  r,  197.  ^). 

g.  For  the  indefinite  relatives  see  §  194. 

201.  The  relative,  interrogative,  and  indefinite  pronouns  are  origi- 
nally from  the  same  stems,  and  most  of  the  forms  are  the  same. 
The  stems  in  the  masculine  and  neuter  are  quo-  and  qui-,  and  in  the 
feminine  quft-.  From  the  stem  qui-  the  only  forms  are  quis,  quid, 
quibus,  and  the  old  ablative  qui.  The  accusative  from  the  stem 
qui-  would  be  quim,  but,  like  nouns  with  i-stems,  it  has  borrowed 
the  ending  -€m  from  the  consonant  declension. 


8o  CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 

202.  Several  adjectives  are  frequently  used  like  pronouns 
and  have  adopted  pronominal  forms  in  the  genitive  and  dative 
singular.    Among  these  are  : 

alius,  another  (of  several)  alter,  the  other  {oi  two) 

unus,  one  nuUus  (for  nem5),  no  one 

uter,  which  ?  (of  two)  neuter,  fieither  (of  two) 

For  the  declension  of  these  adjectives  see  §  143. 


VERBS 
CONJUGATION 

203.  The  inflection  of  the  verb  is  called  its  conjugation. 
Through  their  conjugation  verbs  express  voice,  mood,  tense, 
person,  and  number. 

Voice 

204.  There  are  two  voices  :  active  and  passive,  corresponding 
in  general  to  the  active  and  passive  in  English. 

a.  Verbs  that  are  passive  in  form  but  active  in  meaning  are  called 
Deponent  (§  247).  Semi-deponent  verbs  are  active  in  meaning,  and 
have  active  forms  in  some  of  the  tenses  and  passive  forms  in 
others  (§  248). 

Mood 

205.  There  are  three  moods  :  indicative,  subjunctive,  and  im- 
perative.^   These  mak^  up  what  is  known  as  th^  finite  verb. 

a.  In  addition,  the  verb  system  includes  the  following  non-modal 
verb  forms : 

1 .  Verbal  Nouns  :  infinitive,  gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  Verbal  Adjectives :  participles. 

^  The  infinitive  is  often  included  among  the  moods,  though  it  is  really  a 
verbal  noun  both  in  origin  and  in  use. 


CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS  8 1 

Tense 

206.  The  tenses  are  six  in  number : 

Present  Future  Past  Perfect  (or  Pluperfect) 

Past  (or  Imperfect)       Perfect         Future  Perfect 

Only  the  indicative  mood  has  all  six  tenses.  In  this  mood 
the  past  tense  is  known  as  the  past  descriptive. 

The  subjunctive  has  four  tenses  :  the  present,  past,  perfect,  and 
past  perfect.    The  imperative  has  two  :  the  present  and  future. 

Person 

207.  There  are  three  persons :  first,  second,  and  third. 

Number 

208.  There  are  two  numbers :  singular  and  plural. 

THE  THREE  TENSE  SYSTEMS 

209.  A  verb  is  inflected  by  adding  certain  endings  to  three 
different  tense  stems,  known  as  the  Present  stem,  the  Perfect 
stem,  and  the  Participial  stem. 

From  these  stems  are  derived  the  three  tense  systems,  known 
as  the  Present  System,  the  Perfect  System,  and  the  Participial 
System,  which,  taken  together,  make  up  the  whole  conjugation 
of  the  verb. 

I.  The  Present  System,  derived  from  the  present  stem, 
consists  of : 

The  present,  past  descriptive,  and  future  indicative,  active  and 
passive. 

The  present  and  past  subjunctive,  active  and  passive. 

The  present  and  future  imperative,  active  and  passive. 

The  present  infinitive,  active  and  passive. 

The  present  participle,  the  gerund,  and  the  gerundive. 

Note.  Observe  that  from  the  present  stem  arc  derived  all  the  presents, 
pasts,  and  futures  of  the  finite  veib  (§  205). 


82 


CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS 


II.  The    Perfect    System,    derived  from  the   perfect   stem, 
consists  of : 

The  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect  indicative  active. 
The  perfect  and  past  perfect  subjunctive  active. 
The  perfect  infinitive  active. 

III.  The  Participial   System,   derived   from  the  participial 
stem,  consists  of : 

The  past  participle  passive,  which  combines  with  the  forms  of  the 
verb  sum  to  make : 

The  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect  indicative  passive ; 

The  perfect  and  past  perfect  subjunctive  passive ; 

The  perfect  infinitive  passive. 

The  future  active  participle/  and,  hence,  the  future  infinitive  active. 

The  supine,^  and,  hence,  the  future  infinitive  passive. 


THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS 

210.  Regular  verbs  show  four  types  of  inflection,  known  as 
the  Four  Conjugations,  which  are  distinguished  by  the  final 
vowel  of  the  present  stem.  This  vowel,  called  the  distingidsh- 
hig  or  characteristic  vowel,  appears  before  -re  in  the  present 
infinitive  active  : 


Conjugation 

Present  Infinitive 

Present  Stem 

Distinguishing 
Vowel 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

amare,  to  love 
monere,  to  advise 
regere,  to  rule 
audire,  to  hear 

ama- 
mone- 
regg- 
audi- 

a 
6 
6 

i 

211.  Verbs  which  do  not  conform  to  one  of  the  four  regular 
conjugations  are  called  Irregular  Verbs  (cf.  §§251  ff.). 

1  These  forms  are  most  conveniently  associated  with  the  participial  stem, 
though  strictly  of  different  origin. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS  83 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

212.  Certain  forms  of  the  verb,  which  show  its  conjugation 
and  its  stems,  are  called  its  Principal  Parts.  These  are  the 
present  indicative  active,  first  person  singular ;  the  present  in- 
finitive active ;  the  perfect  indicative  active,  first  person  singular ; 
the  past  participle  passive,  nominative  singular  masculine. 

amd,  amare,  amavi,  amatus,  love 

a.  The  present  stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -re  from  the 
present  infinitive  active :  as,  amS-  from  am&ire. 

b.  The  perfect  stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -i  from  the  perfect 
indicative  active,  first  person  singular :  as,  amav-  from  amav  i. 

c.  The  participial  stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -us  from  the 
past  participle  passive,  nominative  singular  masculine :  as,  amat-  from 
amatjus. 

Note.  In  giving  the  principal  parts  of  intransitive  verbs  the  neuter  of 
the  past  participle  passive  should  be  given  instead  of  the  masculine.' 

veniS,  venire,  veni,  yentum,  come 

If  the  past  participle  passive  is  wantinj?,  the  future  participle  active  (^from 
the  same  stem)  may  be  given. 

fugi5,  fug£re,  fugi,  iu%X\xivai%,flec 

213.  In  the  passive  voice  there  are  three  principal  parts  : 
the  present  indicative  passive,  first  person  singular  ;  the  present 
infinitive  passive ;  and  the  perfect  indicative  passive,  first 
person  singular  :  as,  amor,  am&ri,  amatus  sum. 

214.  The  conjugation  to  which  a  verb  is  referred  is  deter- 
mined by  its  present  infinitive,  no  matter  how  irregular  its 
principal  parts  may  be.  For  example,  domO,  domftre,  domui,  domi- 
tus  is  referred  to  the  first  conjugation  ;  and  pet6,  petere,  petivi, 
petitus  to  the  third. 

*  As  intransitive  verbs  are  used  only  impersonally  in  the  passive,  their  past 
participle  is  always  neuter. 


84  PERSONAL  ENDINGS 

PERSONAL  ENDINGS 

215.  The  person  of  the  verb  is  indicated,  for  each  of  the 
three  persons,  both  singular  and  plural,  active  and  passive,  by 
regular  terminations,  known  as  personal  endings.  Most  of 
these  seem  to  be  remnants  or  fragments  of  old  pronouns 
whose  signification  is  thus  added  to  that  of  the  verb  stem. 

216.  The  personal  endings  of  the  indicative  (except  in  the 
perfect  active)  and  of  the  subjunctive  are  as  follows : 

SINGULAR 

Person  Active  Passive 

_  fsum,  I  am  ^        ,       , 

1  -mor-o-^         '      ,  -r  2crcior.  I  am  loved 

Lamo,  I  love  ,      -  •  . 

famaris^  7       , 

2  -s  2iTCidiS,  you  love  -nsor-re-^  y you  are  loved 

'•^  lamare  j  ^ 

3  -t  2im2it,  he,  she.it  loves      -tur  amatur,  he,  she,  it  is 

loved 

PLURAL 

1  -mus         diTCidimviS,  we  love  -mur  amsLmur,  we  are  loved 

2  -tis  2im3.tis,  you  love  -mini  amamini,  you  are  loved 

3  -nt  a.ma.nt,  they  love  -ntur  ^m^intar,  they  are  loved 

a.  A  long  vowel  is  regularly  shortened  before  final  m,  t,  or  r,  or 
before  nt  (cf.  §  34.  If). 

b.  Observe  that  the  letter  r  appears  in  all  but  one  of  the  passive 
personal  endings.    This  is  sometimes  called  the  passive  sign. 

217.  The  perfect  indicative  active  indicates  the  person  by 
the  following  terminations,  of  doubtful  origin  : 


RSON 

SINGULAR 

I 

-i 

amavi,  I  have  loved 

2 

-isti 

amavisti,  you  have  loved 

3 

-it 

amav  it,  he,  she,  it  has  loved 

THE  PRESENT  STEM  85 

Person  PLURAL 

1  -imus  amavimus,  we  have  loved 

2  -istis  amav  iBtis,  you  Aave /(nrd 

3  -€runt  or  -€re    amavfirunt  or  -€re,  lAey  have  loved 

218.  The    imperative    has    the   following    terminations,    of 
uncertain  origin  : 

PRESENT  ACTIVE 
Person  singular  plural 

2     —      am^Ly  love  thou  -te  a.m2,\Jt,  love  ye 

FUTURE  ACTIVE 

2  -to      diXVidLtJ^y  thou  shall  love  -tflte       2x^2i\XiX3t,  ye  shall  love 

3  -to      zm^XJb,  he,  she,  it  shall  love     -ntO        amdiiM,  they  shall  love 

PRESENT  PASSIVE 
2     -re      2LVC\2iXt,  be  thou  loved  -mini      amamini,  ^<r  j<r /^r// 

FUTURE  PASSIVE 

2  -tor     2im?Ltor,thou  shall  be  loved       

3  -tor    amator,  he,  she,  it  shall  be       -ntor       amantor,  they  shall  be 

lotted  loved 


FORMATION  OF  THE  VERB  STEMS 
The  Present  Stem 

219.  The  present  stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -re  in 
the  present  infinitive  active :  as,  ami-  from  amire. 

220.  In  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  Conjugations  the 
present  stem  ends  in  a  long  vowel. 

Note.  Sometimes  the  root  ends  in  a  long  vowel,  and  the  present  stem 
and  the  root  are  identical :  as,  ati-,  present  stem  and  root  of  stare,  stand. 
But  generally  the  final  vowel  of  the  root,  or  of  a  noun  or  adjective  stem, 
has  been  contracted  with  a  formative  verb  sufiix. 


86  THE  PRESENT  STEM 

a.  First  Conjugation.    The  stem  vowel  is  a-. 

Most  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  are  derived  from  the  stems 
of  nouns  and  adjectives.  The  a-  of  the  present  stem  generally 
appears  also  in  the  perfect  and  participial  stems :  as,  amavi,  amatus. 

b.  Second  Conjugation.    The  stem  vowel  is  e-. 

In  most  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  the  stem  vowel  e- 
appears  only  in  the  present  system.  The  long  stem  vowel  e-  is 
shortened  before  another  vowel  (§  34.  <^)  :  as,  mongo.  Some  of  these 
verbs  are  formed  directly  from  the  root,  but  most  of  them  are  derived 
from  the  stems  of  nouns  and  adjectives. 

c.  Fourth  Conjugation.    The  stem  vowel  is  i-. 

The  long  stem  vowel  i-  is  shortened  before  another  vowel  (§  34.  /^)  : 
as,  audio.  These  verbs  are  formed  from  the  root  or  derived  from  the 
stems  of  nouns  and  adjectives. 

1.  The  i-,  in  verbs  formed  from  the  root,  usually  appears  only  in  the 
present  system :  as,  venio,  venire,  veni,  ventum,  come,  from  the  root  ven-. 

2.  If  the  verbs  are  derived  from  the  stems  of  nouns  and  adjectives, 
the  i-  appears  also  in  the  perfect  and  participial  systems :  as,  finio,  finire, 
finivi,  finitus,  finish,  from  fini-,  stem  of  finis,  end. 

221.  In  the  Third  Conjugation  the  present  stem  ends  in 
a  short  vowel,  e-  or  0-/  changed  in  most  forms  to  i-  or  u-. 
In  most  cases  this  vowel,  known  as  the  thematic  vow  el ^  is 
added  directly  to  the  unmodified  root :  as,  dicVo->  present  stem 
of  dico,  speak.  Often,  however,  various  stem  elements  are  added 
to  the  root,  and  sometimes  the  root  itself  is  changed. 

Thus  arise  seven  different  kinds  of  formation  of  the  present 
stem,  making  the  following  seven  classes^  of  verbs : 

1  The  variation  of  the  stem  vowel  between  e-  and  o-  is  caused  by  ablaut 
(§  56),  and  its  variable  character  is  generally  indicated  by  writing  it  e/o  (or, 
as  it  usually  appears,  i/u). 

2  The  thematic  vowel,  appearing  between  the  root  and  the  personal  endings, 
is  a  part  of  the  stem  but  not  of  the  root.    Its  origin  is  unknown. 

8  In  the  first  five  classes  the  stem  endings  added  to  the  root  are,  respec- 
tively, e/o  (the  thematic  vowel),  yVo)  nc/o,  te/o»  scc/o-  In  classes  6  and  7  the 
thematic  vowel  is  added  directly  to  the  root,  but  the  root  itself  is  changed. 


THE  PERFECT  STEM  87 

a.  The  root  class :  as,  dic-6,  speaA ;  root  die-. 

b.  The  -iC  class :  as,  cap-iO,  tak^ ;  root  cap-. 

c.  The  -nO  class :  as,  tem-nO,  despise ;  root  tem-. 

d.  The  -to  class:  as,  flec-tO,  bend\  root  flee-. 
€.   The  -sc6  class  :  as,  erg-seO,  grow ;  root  erg-. 

/.    The  reduplicating  class:  as,  gi-gn-5,  bear\  root  gen-  or  gn-. 
g.  The  nasal  class :  as,  iu-n-g-0,  join ;  root  iug-. 

1,  In  the  reduplicating  class  the  root  is  changed  by  reduplication;  that 
is,  by  prefixing  its  first  consonant  with  i. 

2.  In  the  nasal  class  a  nasal  (m  or  n)  is  inserted  before  the  final  con- 
sonant of  the  simple  root,  and  usually  appears  only  in  the  present  system. 

The  Perfect  Stem 

222.  The  perfect  stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -i  from 
the  first  person  singular  of  the  perfect  indicative  active. 

223.  The  perfect  stem  is  formed  in  various  ways : 

a.  The  suffi.x  -V-  is  added  to  the  present  stem. 
This  formation  is  common  to  most  verbs  of  the  first  and  fourth 
conjugations. 

voca-v-i,  from  vocare,  call  audi-v-i,  from  audire,  hear 

ft.  The  suflfix  -V-  is  added  to  the  root,  or  to  a  modified  form  of  the 
root  ending  in  a  long  vowel. 

This  formation  is  found  in  several  verbs  of  the  second  and  third 
conjugations. 

fle-v-i,  from  flere,  weep ;  root  fle- 

stra-v-I,  from  sternere,  stre%u ;  root  ster-,  modified  root  stra- 
n5-v-i,  from  ndscere,  know ;  root  gno-,  modified  root  n5- 
le-v-i,  from  linere,  smear  \  root  li-,  modified  root  le- 

c.  The  suflfix  -u-  is  added  to  the  root  or  to  a  modified  form  of  it. 

This  formation  is  common  to  most  verbs  of  the  second  conjuga- 
tion, and  also  appears  in  some  verbs  of  the  third  and  (rarely)  of 
the  first  and  fourth  conjugations. 


88  THE  PERFECT  STEM 

mon-u-i,  from  monere,  advise ;  root  man-,  modified  root  mon- 
col-u-i,  from  colere,  ////;  root  col- 
vet-u-i,  from  ye\zxt,  forbid  \  root  vet- 

aper-u-i,  from  aperire,  open ;  preposition  ab  +  root  par-,  modified 
root  per- 

NoTE.  The  suffix  -u-  is  in  reality  the  same  as  the  suffix  -v-,  the  Latin 
having  but  one  character  for  both  the  vowel  and  the  consonant  (§2.  b). 

d.  The  suffix  -s-  is  added  to  the  root 

This  formation  is  common  to  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  having 
roots  ending  in  a  mute  (cf .  §  i  o).  It  often  appears  also  in  the  second 
conjugation  and  occasionally  in  the  fourth. 

The  combination  of  the  final  mute  and  s  gives  rise  to  various  con- 
sonant changes  (cf.  §  50),  and  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  in  the  root 
syllable  of  the  perfect  and  of  the  present  is  sometimes  not  the  same. 

rex-i,  from  regere,  ru/e  •  root  reg- 

mi-s-i,  from  mittere,  se;id\  root  mit- 

ar-s-i,  from  ardere,  burn  ;  root  ar-,  modified  root  ard- 

sen-s-i,  from  sentire,y^i?/;  root  sent- 

e.  The  root  is  reduplicated  by  prefixing  the  first  consonant,  gen- 
erally with  6,  sometimes  with  the  root  vowel.  An  a  in  the  root  syllable 
is  weakened  to  i  or  e,  and  an  ae  to  i  (cf.  §  44). 

This  formation  is  found  only  in  the  third  conjugation,  in  mordeo, 
pendeo,  spondee,  and  tondeo  of  the  second  conjugation,  and  in  do  and 
sto.    Examples  are : 

ce-cid-i,  from  cadere,y«//;  root  cad- 
ce-cid-i,  from  caedere,  cut ;  root  caed- 
te-tig-i,  from  tangere,  totich  ;  root  tag- 
to-tond-i,  from  tondere,  shear  \  root  tond- 

1.  In  compounds  the  reduplicated  syllable  usually  disappears:  as, 
incidi,  perfect  of  incido  (compound  of  cado);  contigi,  perfect  of  con- 
tingO  (compound  of  tango). 

2.  When  the  verb  begins  with  3p  or  st,  both  consonants  appear 
in  the  reduplication,  but  s  disappears  from  the  root :  as,  steti  (for 
*8te-sti),  perfect  of  sto. 


THE  PARTICIPIAL  STEM  89 

/.  The  vowel  of  the  root  syllable  is  lengthened  or  changed. 
This  formation  is  confined  mostly  to  verbs  of  the  second  and  third 
conjugations. 

mov-i,  from  movere,  move ;  root  mov- 
fec-i,  from  facere,  make ;  root  fac- 
eg-i,  from  agere,  drive ;  root  ag- 
ven-i,  from  venire,  come ;  root  ven- 

g.  Sometimes  the  perfect  stem  has  the  same  form  that  appears  in 
the  present. 

This  formation  is  common  in  the  third  conjugation,  and  occurs  in 
nearly  all  verbs  ending  in  -uO. 

vert-i,  from  vertere,  turn 
solv-i,  from  solvere,  loosen 
metu-i,  from  metuere,y^tfr 
tribu-i,  from  tribuere,  assign 

224.  The  rules  in  §  223  may  be  summarized  by  the  state- 
ment that,  in  general,  the  perfect  stem  is  formed  by  adding 
a  suffix  to  the  root  or  present  stem,  by  reduplication,  or  by 
changing  the  root  vowel. 

ThK    PaRTICIPI.^L    STKNf 

225.  The  participial  stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -us  or 
-um  from  the  nominative  of  the  past  participle,  or  -um  from 
the  supine. 

226.  The  participial  stem  is  formed  by  adding  -t-  or  -»- : 

a.  To  the  present  stem. 

ama-t-,  from  amare,  lo^>e 
dele-t-,  from  delere.  destroy 
audi-t-,  from  audire,  hear 

b.  To  the  root,  with  or  without  an  intervening  -1-. 

cap-t-,  from  capere,  /ake 
mon-i-t-.  from  monere,  advise 


90        FORMATION  OF  THE  MOODS  AND  TENSES 

The  addition  of  the  suffix  leads  to  many  consonant  changes,  for 
which  see  §§48,  54.^.  The  vowel  of  the  root  syllable  is  generally 
the  same  as  in  the  present. 

Note.  Verbs  in  -uo  form  the  participial  stem  by  adding  -ut-  to  the 
root  syllable. 

stat-ut-,  from  statuere,  set  trib-ut-,  from  tribuere,  assign 


FORMATION  OF  THE  MOODS  AND  TENSES 

227.  The  different  moods  and  tenses  are,  as  a  rule,  distin- 
guished by  certain  formative  signs,  known  as  mood  signs  or 
tense  signs,  which  precede  the  personal  endings.  Long  vowels 
are  regularly  shortened  before  another  vowel,  before  a  final  m, 
r,  or  t,  and  before  nt  or  nd  (cf.  §  34.  ^). 

Indicative  Mood 

228.  The  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood  are  the  present,  past 
descriptive,  future,  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect. 

229.  The  present,  past  descriptive,  and  future  are  formed 
from  the  present  stem  as  follows : 

a.  The  Present  Indicative  has  no  tense  sign,  the  personal  endings 
being  added  directly  to  the  stem.  Thus,  from  the  present  stem  ara- 
are  formed  ara-s,  ara-tis,  etc. 

1.  In  the  first  conjugation  the  stem  vowel  a-  disappears  in  the 
first  person  singular  by  contraction :  as,  amo,  for  *ama-6. 

2.  In  the  third  conjugation  the  thematic  vowel  e/o  (§221)  dis- 
appears in  the  first  person  singular  by  contraction  (as,  rego  for 
"^reg-e-o) ;  appears  as  e  before  r  (as,  reg-e-ris) ;  appears  as  u  before 
nt  (as,  reg-u-nt) ;  and  becomes  i  before  all  the  other  personal  endings 
(as,  reg-i-s,  reg-i-t). 

3.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  the  thematic  vowel  appears  as  u  in 
the  third  person  plural  between  the  stem  and  the  personal  ending: 
as,  audi-u-nt. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  MOODS  AND  TENSES        91 

b.  I'he  Past  Descriptive  Indicative  adds  -bft-  as  a  tense  sign  to 
the  present  stem :  as,  ama-ba-s. 

1.  In  the  third  conjugation  the  stem  vowel  appears  as  6-:  as, 
reg6-ba-m. 

2.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  6  generally  occurs  between  the  stem 
and  the  tense  sign:  as,  audi-€-ba-m.  This  is  the  regular  form  in 
classical  Latin.    The  earlier  formation  is  without  6 :  as,  audi-ba-m. 

c.  The  Future  Indicative  in  the  first  and  second  conjugations  has 
as  a  tense  sign  -b  -}-  the  thematic  vowel  i/u  (changed  from  e/o  except 
in  the  first  person  singular).  This  is  added  to  the  present  stem :  as, 
am4-b0,  ama-bi-s,  mon6-bu-nt. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  conjugations  the  tense  sign  is  -A-  in  the 
first  person  singular  and  -€-  in  the  remaining  forms.  In  the  third 
conjugation  the  tense  signs  take  the  place  of  the  stem  vowel,  but  not 
in  the  fourth  :  as,  reg-a-m,  reg-6-mus,  audi-a-m,  audi-€-mus. 

Note  i.  The  tense  signs  -a-  and  -e-  arc  really  subjunctive  mood  signs, 
and  futures  so  formed  arc  in  origin  present  subjunctives. 

NoTK  2.  In  early  Latin  a  future  in  -bo  is  found  also  in  verbs  of  the 
fourth  conjugation:  as,  sclbo,  for  sciam;  audlb5,  for  audiam. 

230.  The  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect  indicative 
active  are  formed  from  the  perfect  stem  as  follows : 

a.  The  Perfect  Indicative  is  formed  by  adding  the  endings  of  the 
perfect  (cf.  $  217)  to  the  perfect  stem  (cf.  §  222). 

1.  Perfects  in  -ftvi,  -€vi,  and  -5vi,  and  also  other  tenses  formed 
from  similar  perfect  stems,  sometimes  lose  v  and  its  following  vowel 
before  s  or  r. 

amasti.  for  amavisti  commdrat,  for  commoverat 

delerunt,  for  deleverunt  ndsti,  for  ndvisti 

2.  Perfects  in  -ivi  often  omit  v,  but  the  following  vowel  is  not 
droppjed  except  before  s. 

audiit,  for  audivit  audienint,  for  audiverunt 

audisti,  for  audivisti  petistis,  for  petivistis 

b.  The  Past  Perfect  Indicative  adds  -€ri-  as  a  tense  sign  to  the 
perfect  stem  :  as,  anUlv-era-m. 


92        FORMATION  OF  THE  MOODS  AND  TENSES 

c.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  has  as  a  tense  sign  -er  +  the 
thematic  vowel  i/u  (changed  from  e/o  except  in  the  first  person  singu- 
lar). This  is  added  to  the  perfect  stem :  as,  amav-ero,  amav-eri-s. 
The  third  person  plural,  however,  ends  in  -int  (not  in  -unt)  in  imita- 
tion of  the  perfect  subjunctive. 

Note  i.  The  same  imitation  has  given  rise  to  occasional  forms  of  the 
second  person  singular  and  first  and  second  person  plural  in  -is,  -imus, 
-itis,  instead  of  -is,  -imus,  -itis,  the  forms  with  i  being  original  in  the 
perfect  subjunctive. 

Note  2.  In  early  Latin  the  future  perfect  indicative  sometimes  has 
forms  in  -so  or  -sso :  as,  faxo  (fac-so),  from  facio  ;  capso,  from  capio ; 
amasso,  from  amo. 

231.  The  Perfect  Indicative  Passive  and  all  other  passive 
tenses  of  the  perfect  system  are  formed  by  combining  the 
past  participle  with  present,  past  descriptive,  and  future  forms 
of  the  auxiliary  verb  esse,  de  :  as,  amatus  sum,  amatus  eram, 
amatus  ero,  amatus  sim,  amatus  esse,  etc. 

Subjunctive  Mood 

232.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood  are  the  present, 
past,   perfect,   and  past  perfect.    Long  vowels   are   shortened, 
before  a  final  m,  r,  or  t,  and  before  nt  or  nd,  as  in  the  indica- 
tive (cf.  §  34.  ^). 

233.  The  present  and  past  subjunctive  are  formed  from  the 
present  stem  as  follows  : 

a.  The  Present  Subjunctive  has  the  mood  sign  -e-  in  the  first 
conjugation  and  -a-  in  the  others.  The  mood  sign  takes  the  place  of 
the  final  stem  vowel  in  the  first  and  third  conjugations,  but  not  in  the 
second  and  fourth :  as,  am-e-m,  mone-a-mus,  reg-a-s,  audi-a-tis. 

I.  Many  irregular  verbs  have  -i-  for  a  present  subjunctive  mood 
sign :  as,  s-i-m,  vel-i-mus,  du-i-nt,  ed-i-s. 

b.  The  Past  Subjunctive  adds  the  mood  sign  -se-  to  the  present 
stem,  the  s  becoming  r  between  two  vowels  (cf.  §  49)  :  as,  es-s5-mus, 
mone-re-s. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  MOODS  AND  TENSES        93 

234.  The  perfect  and  past  perfect  subjunctive  active  are 
formed  from  the  perfect  stem  as  follows : 

a.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  Active  adds  the  tense  sign  -erf-  to  the 
perfect  stem  :  as,  amav-eri-m,  amav-eri-s. 

I.  The  i  of  the  mood  sign,  originally  long,  is  often  shortened 
through  confusion  with  the  future  perfect  indicative  (cf.  §  230.  c.  n.  1). 
hjccept  in  the  first  person  singular  the  Romans  did  not  maintain  a 
clear  distinction  between  these  two  tenses. 

Note  i.    In  early  Latin  a  perfect  subjunctive  appears  with  the  ending 
-sim :  as,  faxim  (fac-sim),  from  faci5 ;  ausim,  from  auded. 
Note  2.    For  the  passive  see  §  231. 

b.  The  Past  Perfect  Subjunctive  Active  adds  the  tense  sign  -issS- 
to  the  perfect  stem  :  as,  amav-iss6-s,  dix-isse-m. 

Note.    For  the  passive  see  §  23 1 . 

Imperative  Mood 

235.  The  imperative  mood  has  neither  mood  sign  nor  tense 
signs.  Its  forms  are  made  by  adding  its  characteristic  endings 
(cf.  §  218)  to  the  present  stem  :  as,  ami-te,  mone-nt5. 

a.  In  the  third  conjugation  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  (the  thematic 
vowel,  §  221)  appears  as  6  in  the  second  person  singular,  and  else- 
where as  in  the  present  indicative :  as,  rege,  regi-t5. 

b.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  the  thematic  vowel  appears  as  u 
between  the  stem  and  the  ending  in  the  third  person  plural  of  the 
future  imperative,  just  as  in  the  third  person  plural  of  the  present 
indicative  (cf.  §  229.  a.  3):  as,  audi-u-ntO. 

c.  Four  verbs,  dic6,  duc5,  faciS,  and  ferO,  drop  the  final  vowel  in* 
the  singular  of  the  present  active  imperative,  making  die,  dQc.  fac, 

jand  fer. 

But  prepositional  compounds  of  faciO  retain  the  final  vowel :  as, 
cOnfice  from  cOnficiS.  • 

Note.  In  early  Latin  dice,  duce,  and  face  are  more  frequent  than  the 
shortened  forms. 


94     FORMATION  OF  THE  NON-MODAL  VERB  FORMS 
FORMATION  OF  THE  NON-MODAL  VERB  FORMS 

236.  The  non-modal  verb  forms  are  the  infinitive,  gerund, 
supine,  and  participle. 

237.  The  infinitive  has  three  tenses  :  present,  perfect,  and 
future,  active  and  passive. 

a.  I.  The  Present  Infinitive  Active  is  formed  by  adding  -se  to  the 
present  stem :  as,  es-se,  be.  But  when  the  s  of  this  ending  comes 
between  two  vowels,  it  is  regularly  changed  to  r  (cf.  §  49)  :  as, 
ama-re,  for  ama-se ;  mone-re,  for  mone-se. 

2.  The  Present  Infinitive  Passive  is  formed  by  adding  -ri  to  the 
present  stem  in  all  conjugations  but  the  third,  where  -i  is  added  to 
the  root  syllable :  as,  ama-ri,  mone-ri,  audi-ri,  but  reg-i. 

Note.  In  early  Latin  and  in  poetry  a  present  infinitive  passive  occurs 
ending  in  -ier :  as,  amarier,  monerier,  regier,  audirier. 

h.  I .  The  Perfect  Infinitive  Active  is  formed  by  adding  -isse  to  the 
perfect  stem :  as,  amav-isse,  monu-isse,  rex-isse,  audiv-isse. 

2.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  Passive  consists  of  the  past  pardciple  with 
esse :  as,  amatus  esse,  monitus  esse.    But  esse  is  often  omitted. 

c.  I.  The  Future  Infinitive  Active  consists  of  the  forms  of  the 
future  active  participle  with  esse:  as,  amaturus  esse.  But  esse  is 
very  often  omitted. 

2.  The  Future  Infinitive  Passive  consists  of  the  supine  in  -um  with 
in  (the  present  infinitive  passive  of  eo,  go)  :  as,  amatum  iri,  rectum  iri. 

238.  The  Gerund  is  a  neuter  verbal  noun,^  corresponding  in 
meaning  to  the  English  verbal  noun  in  -z;/^:  as,  loquendi  causa, 
/or  the  sake  of  speaking.  It  is  found  only  in  the  oblique 
cases  of  the  singular,  and  may  be  formed  by  adding  -ndi  to 
the  present  stem  :  as,  ama-ndi,  mone-ndi,  rege-ndi.  In  the  fourth 
conjugation  the  thematic  vowel  appears  as  e  between  the  stem 
and  the  ending:  as,  audi-e-ndi. 

»      Note.    In  early  Latin  -undi  is  often  used  for  -endi  in  the  third  and 
fourth  conjugations:  as,  faciundi,  audiundi. 

1  The  gerund  is  really  the  neuter  of  the  gerundive  used  substantively. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  NON-MODAL  VERB  FORMS     95 

239.  The  Supine  is  a  verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension, 
and  is  commonly  found  only  in  the  accusative  singular,  ending 
in  -turn  or  -sum,  and  in  the  ablative  singular,  ending  in  -tfi  or 
-sii :  as,  amatum,  amatu  ;  visum,  visti. 

240.  There  are  four  participles  :  the  present  active,  the  future 
active,  the  past  passive,  and  the  future  passive,  or  gerundive. 

Latin  lacks  the  perfect  active  participle  (as,  having  heard) 
and  the  present  passive  participle  (as,  being  heard).  But  the 
past  participle  of  deponent  verbs  (§  247),  though  passive  in 
form,  is  generally  active  in  meaning. 

a.  The  Present  Active  Participle  has  the  same  meaning  as  the 
English  participle  in  -ing.  It  is  formed  by  adding  -nt-  (nominative 
singular  -ns)  to  the  present  stem  (as,  voci-ns,  calling),  and  is  declined 
like  an  adjective  of  one  ending  of  the  third  declension  (of.  §  149).  In 
the  fourth  conjugation  the  thematic  vowel  appears  as  e  between  the 
stem  and  the  ending :  as,  audl-6-ns,  hearing. 

b.  The  Future  Active  Participle  is  used  to  express  what  is  /i/:e/y  or 
a/H>n/  to  happen,  and  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  -Qrus,  -a,  -um  to 
the  participial  stem. 

atnat-urus,  adou^  to  lente  monit-urus,  about  to  advise 

c.  The  Past  Participle  Passive  has  the  meaning  of  the  English  past 
participle  passive,  and  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  -us,  -a,  -um  to 
the  participial  stem :  as,  amfit-us,  loved.  It  is  used  also  with  forms 
of  esse  to  form  the  passive  tenses  of  the  perfect  system  (cf.  §  231). 

Note.  The  past  participle  of  deponent  verbs  (§  247)  is  generally  active 
in  meaning :  as,  hortatus,  having  encouraged. 

d.  The  Future  Passive  Participle,  or  Gerundive,  sometimes  denotes 
obligation,  propriety,  or  intention,  but  more  frequently  has  the  same 
meaning  as  the  gerund  (§  238). 

'I'he  gerundive  is  formed  like  the  gerund  ^§  238)  from  the  present 
stem,  but  with  the  endings  -ndus,  -a,  -um  in  the  nominative  singular, 
and  is  declined  throughout  like  bonus  (§  1 40). 

amandus.  -a.  -um,  to  be  loved  regendus.  -a,  -um.  to  Iw  ruled 


96 


CONJUGATION  OF  SUM 


CONJUGATION  OF  SUM 

241 .  The  verb  sum,  to  be,  is  irregular,  but  is  given  first  because 
of  its  importance  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  formation  of  the  passive 
tenses  of  the  regular  verb. 

Principal  Parts  :  pres.  indie,  sum,  pres.  infin.  esse,  perf.  indie,  fui, 
fut.  part,  futurus  ^ 


Pres.  Stem  es- 


SINGULAR 

sum,  I  am 

es,  thou  art 

est,  he  (she,  it)  is 

eram,  I  was 
eras,  thou  wast 
erat,  he  was 

erS,  I  shall  be 
eris,  thou  wilt  be 
erit,  he  will  be 


fui,  I  have  been,  was 
fuisti,  thou  hast  been,  wast 
fuit,  he  has  been,  was 


Perf.  Stem   fu-  Part.  Stem   fut- 

INDICATIVE 
Present 

PLURAL 

sumus,  7ve  are 
estis,  you  are 
sunt,  they  are 

Past  Descriptive 

eramus,  we  were 
eratis,  you  ivere 
erant,  they  were 

erimus,  we  shall  be 
eritis,  you  will  be 
erunt,  they  will  be 

fuimus,  7ve  have  been,  were 
iwisti^,  you  have  been,  were 

I  they  have  been,  were 


Future 


Perfect 


fueram,  I  had  been 
fueras,  thou  hadst  been 
fuerat,  he  had  been 


fu6re 
Past  Perfect 

fu  eramus,  7ve  had  been 
f u  eratis,  you  had  bee?i 
fu  erant,  they  had  been 


1  Sum  has  no  past  participle  (cf.  §  212.  n.). 


CONJUGATION  OF  SUM 


97 


Future  Perfect 
singular  plural 

fuerO,  /  shall  have  been  fuerimus,  ute  shall  have  been 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been  fueritis,  you  will  have  been 

fuerit,  he  will  have  been  fucrint,  they  will  have  been 


r  RESENT 
SINGULAR  PLURAL 

sim  simus 

sis  sitis 

sit  sint 

Perfect 
fuerim  fuerimus 

fueris  fueritis 

fuerit  fuerint 

Present 
2D  Pers.  Sing,    es,  be  thou 
2nPERs.  Plur.    ^s,\A^beye 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Pa 

,sr 

SINGULAR 

PLURAL 

essem 

essSmus 

ess6s 

cssetis 

esset 

essent 

Past  ] 

Perfect 

\                     fuissem 

fuissfimus 

fuissgs 

fuissgtis 

fuisset 

f  u  issent 

IMPERATIVE 

Future 
2L>  Pers.  Sing.    est5,  thou  shall  be 
3D  Pers.  Sing.    estO,  he  shall  be 
2D  Pers.  Plur.    estCte,  ye  shall  be 
3D  Pers.  Plur.    suntO,  they  shall  be 


INFINITIVE 

Pres.    esse,  to  be 
I'KKK.    fuisse,  to  have  been 
Fr I.     futurus,  -a,  -um  esse,  or  fore, 
to  be  about  to  be 


participle 


futurus,  -a,  -um,  about  to  be 


a.  In  the  past  subjunctive  forem,  forCs,  foret,  forent  are  often 
used  instead  of  essem,  essCs,  etc.;  so  in  the  future  infinitive  fore  is 
used  for  futurus  esse. 

b.  The  present  participle  is  lacking  in  sum,  but  appears  in  the  par- 
ticipial adjectives  ab-sCns  {absent)  and  prae-s6ns  (present). 

c.  Old  present  subjunctives  are  siem,  sigs,  siet,  sient,  and  fuam, 
fu&s,  fuat,  fuant. 


98  CONJUGATION  OF  AMO 

REGULAR  VERBS      ' 
242.  FIRST  CONJUGATION.    ^-VERBS.    AMO 

Principal  Parts  :  amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatus 
Pres.  Stem  ama-  Perf.  Stem  amav-  Part.  Stem  amat- 

ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

I  love ^  am  lovi?ig,  do  love,  etc.  I  am  loved,  etc. 

am  5  amamus  ^mor  amamur 

amas  amatis  amaris  (-re)         amamini 

amat  amant  amatur  amantur 

Past  Descriptive 
/  loved,  was  loving,  did  love,  etc.  /  was  {being)  loved,  etc. 

amabam  amabamus  amabar  amabamur 

amabas  amabatis  amabaris  (-re)     amabamini 

ama  bat  ama  bant  amabatur  amabantur 

Future 

I  shall  love,  e.tc.  I  shall  be  loved,  &ic. 

ama  bo  amabimus  amabor  amabimur 

ama  bis  amabitis  amaberis  (-re)      amabimini 

ama  bit  ama  bunt  amabitur  amabuntur 

Perfect 
I  have  loved,  loved,  did  love,  etc.  I  have  been  (was)  loved,  etc. 

amavi  amavimus  _         fsum  ,   fsumus 

_   .  ^.  -   •  ..  amatus,  amat  I, 

amavisti        amavistis  <^  es  <  estis 

-a,  -utn  -ae,  -a  ] 
amav  it          amav  grunt  (-re)                        Lest  j^sunt 


CONJUGATION  OF  AMO 


99 


ACTIVE 

/  had  imrd,  etc. 

amaveram      amaveramus 
amaveris        amaveratis 
amaverat        amaverant 


PASSIVE 


Past  Perfect 


/  had  been  lavedy  etc. 


amatus, 
-a, -um 


eram 

er&s 

erat 


amati, 
-ae, -a 


r  eramus 
-{  eratis 
C  erant 


Future  Perfect 
/shall  have  im'ed,  etc.  I  shall  have  been  loved,  etc. 


ama\  er6  amaverimus 

amaveris        amaveritis 
am  a  V  erit        ama  v  erint 


amatus, 
-a, -um 


ert 
eris 

I,  erit 


amati, 
-ae,  -a 


erimus 

eritis 

erunt 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

am  em 

am  emus 

amer 

amCmur 

am  6s 

amgtis 

am  eris  (-re) 

amSmini 

amet 

ament 

am6tur 

amentur 

Past 


ama  rem 

amargmus 

amargs 

amaretis 

ama  ret 

ama  rent 

ama  rer  ama  rSmur 

amarCris  (-re)      amarSmini 
amargtur  amarentur 


amaverim       amaverimus 
amavens        amaveritis 
amaverit        ama  v  erint 


Perfect 


rsim  .  , 

amatus,      ,  amati 

<  sis 
-a, -um    1    ,         -ae, -a 

1  sit 


.  rsimus 


sitis 
sint 


amav  issem     amav  issgmus 
amavissgs      amavissStis 
amav  isset       amiiv  issent 


Past  Perfect 

amatus, 
-a, -um 


essem 

essgs 

esset 


amati, 
-ae, -a 


f  essgmus 
-!  essetis 
essent 


:oo 


CONJUGATION  OF  AMO 


ACTIVE 


ama,  love  thou 
amate,  love  ye 


ama  to,  thoic  shalt  love 
ama  to,  he  shall  love 
ama  tote,  ye  shall  love 
amanto,  they  shall  love 


PASSIVE 

IMPERATIVE 

Present 

ama  re,  be  thou  loved 
ama  mini,  be  ye  loved 

Future 

ama  tor,  thou  shalt  be  loved 
ama  tor,  he  shall  be  loved 


amantor,  they  shall  be  loved 


INFINITIVE 

Pres.    ama  re,  to  love  amari,  to  be  loved 

Perf.    amavisse,  to  have  loved  amatus,  -a,  -um  esse,  to  havebeeii  loved 

FuT.     amaturus,  -a,  -um  esse,  amatum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  loved 
to  be  about  to  love 

PARTICIPLES 


Pres.    amans, -antis, /r;z^/;z^         Pres.    

FuT.     amaturus, -a, -um, ^^^7/^     Ger.i    amandus,  -a,  -um,  to  be  loved 
to  love 

Past     Past     amatus,  -a,  -um,  having  been 

loved,  loved 


GERUND 


NOM.  

Gen,  amandi,  of  loving 

DAT.  ama  ndo,  for  loving 

Ace.  amandum,  loving 

Abl.  amand5,  by  loving 


SUPINE  (Active  Voice) 

Acc.     amatum,  to  love 

Abl.     amatu,  to  love,  in  the  loving 


^  Gerundive,  sometimes  called  the  future  passive  participle. 


CONJUGATION  OF  MONEO 

243.         SECOND  CONJUGATION.    ^-VERBS.    MOlfEO 
Principal  Parts  :  moned,  monSre,  monui,  monitus 
Pres.  Stem  mon6-         Perf.  Stem  monu-         Part.  Stbm  monit- 


lOI 


ACTIVE 


I  advise^  etc. 


moneO 
mones 
monet 


monemus 

monetis 

monent 


PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

I  am  advised^  etc. 

moneor  monemur 

moneris  (-re)  moncmini 

mone  tur  mone  ntur 


Past  Descriftive 
/  was  advising,  etc.  /  was  advised^  etc. 

mone  bam         monebftmus  mone  bar  monebamur 

mone  bans  (-re)      moncbfimini 


monebas 
mone  bat 


monebatis 
mone  bant 


monebatur 


monebantur 


/  shall  advise,  etc. 

monebO  monebimus 

mone  bis  monebitis 

mone  bit  mone  bunt 


Future 


/  shall  Ife  advised,  etc. 


monebor 
moneberis  (-re) 
monebitur 


monebimur 
monebimini 
moncbuntur 


/  have  advised,  etc. 
monui  monulmus 


monu  isti 
monu  it 


Perfect 


I  have  been  advised^  etc. 
rsum  .  _  fsumus 


monu  istia 
monu6runt(-re) 


monitus, 
-a,  -um 


<  es 
I.  est 


moniti 
-ae.  -a 


fsun 
' \  esti 


estis 
^sunt 


102 


•  •  •• '  *ta>r[UGATION  OF  MONEO 


ACTIVE 


PASSIVE 


Past  Perfect 

I  had  advised,  etc. 

/  had  been  advised,  etc. 

monueram        monueramus 
monueras         monueratis 
monuerat         monuerant 

reram                    feramus 
monitus,        _          moniti,  1     _^. 

\  eras                    \  eratis 
-a,  -um           ^        -ae,  -a 

Lerat                      i  erant 

Future  Perfect 


I  shall  have  advised,  etc. 


monuero 

monueris 

monuerit 


monuerimus 
monu  eritis 
monuerint 


/  shall  have  been  advised,  etc. 
fero  .  _  rerimus 


monitus 
-a,  -um 


<  ens 

[erit 


moniti 
-ae,  -a 


'-;  eri 


eritis 
I 
l^erunt 


moneam 

moneas 

moneat 


moneamus 

moneatis 

moneant 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 


monear 
monearis  (-re/ 
moneatur 


moneamur 
moneamini 
moneantur 


Past 

monerem  moneremus  monerer  monergmur 

moneres  moneretis  monereris  (-re)  moneremini 

moneret  monerent  moneretur  monerentur 


Perfect 


monuenm 

monueris 

monuerit 

monuerimus 

s^.               monitus 
monu  eritis 

.  ^              -a,  -um 
monuennt 

Past  Perfect 

rsim 

^sis 
I  sit 

moniti, 
-ae,  -a 

r  simus 
\  sitis 
Isint 

monuissem 

monu  issgmus 
monuissetis           "^^"^^^^ 
monuissent           "*'  "^™ 

r  essem 

moniti, 
-ae,  -a 

r  essemus 
-!  essetis 
t essent 

monuisses 
monu  isset 

<  esses 
L esset 

CONJUGATION  OF  MONRO 


03 


ACTIVE 


mone,  advise  thou 
moncte,  advise  ye 


PASSIVE 


IMPERATIVE 


Present 


monere,  be  thou  advised 
mone  mini,  be  ye  advised 


nionctO.  thou  shalt  advise 
mone  to.  he  shall  advise 
m(jnct6te,  ye  shall  advise 
mone  ntO,  they  shall  advise 


Future 


mone  tor,  thou  shalt  be  advised 
mone  tor,  he  shall  be  advised 


mone  ntor,  they  shall  be  advised 


INFINITIVE 


Pres.    monere,  to  advise 

Perk,    monuisse,  to  have  advised 

FuT.     moniturus,  -a,  -um  esse,  to 
be  about  to  advise 


moneri,  to  be  advised 

monitus,  -a,  -um   esse,  to  have 

been  advised 
monitum   iri,   to  be  about  to  be 

advised 


PARTICIPLES 


Pres.    monens,  -entis,  advising         Pres.    

FuT.     moniturus,  -a,  -um,  about      Ger.     monendus.  -a.  -um,  to  be 
to  advise  advised 

Past     Past     monitus,  -a,  -um,  having 

been  advised,  advised 


GERUND 


NOM. 

Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


monendi,  of  advising 
monend5,/^>r  advising 
monendum,  advising 
monendO,  by  advising 


SUPINE  (Active  Voice) 

Acc.     monitum,  to  advise 
Abl.     monitii,   to  advise,  in  the 
advising 


[04  CONJUGATION  OF  REGO 

244.  THIRD  CONJUGATION.    £- VERBS.    REGO 

Principal  Parts  :  rego,  regere,  rexi,  rectus 

Pres.  Stem   rege-  Perf.  Stem   rex-  Part.  Stem   rect- 


ACTIVE 


I  rule,  etc. 

rego  regimus 

regis  regitis 

regit  regunt 


PASSIVE 


INDICATIVE 

Present 


I  am  ruled,  etc. 


regor 

regeris  (-re) 
regitur 


regimur 
regi  mini 
reguntur 


1 7vas  ruling,  etc. 

rege  bam        regebamus 
rege  bas         rege  batis 
rege  bat         rege  bant 


Past  Descriptive 

I  ivas  ruled,  etc. 

rege  bar  rege  bamur 

regebaris  (-re)       regebamini 
regebatur  regebantur 


Future 


/  shall  rule,  etc. 

regam  regemus 

reges  regetis 

reget  regent 


I  shall  be  ruled,  etc. 


regar 

regeris  (-re) 
regetur 


regemur 
regemini 
regentur 


I  have  ruled,  etc. 

rexi  reximus 

rexisti  rexistis 

rex  it  rexerunt  (-re) 


Perfect 


I  have  been  ruled,  etc. 


rectus,  I 


fsum 


-a,  -um 


Lest 


f  sumus 
recti,    1     ^. 

.  \  estis 
-ae,  -a 

I  sunt 


CONJUGATION  OF  JiEGO 


105 


ACTIVK 

PASSIVE 

Past  Perfect 

J  had  rtiled,  etc. 

/  had  been  ruled y  etc. 

rexeram        rcxerSmus 
rex  eras         rcxerfitis 
rexerat          rexerant 

feram               ,    reramus 
rectus,  1^^         ^^'-     erstis 
-a,  -um         ^          -ae,  -a] 

Lerat                    i.erant 

/  shall  have  m/edy  etc. 


Future  Perfect 

I  shall  have  been  ruled,  etc. 


rexerO 
rexeris 
rexerit 

rcxerimus 

rexeritis 

rexerint 

^^""'Jeris 
-^'-"'"lerit 

SUBJUNCTIVK 

Present 

.    r  erimus 

^^"-     eriti. 
-ae,  -« 

Lerunt 

regam 

regamus 

regar 

regftmur 

regis 

regatis 

regSris  (-re) 

regftmini 

rcgat 

regant 

regitur 
Past 

rc2:antur 

regerem 

regergmus 

regerer 

regergmur 

regerfis 

regeretis 

regerCris  (-re) 

regergmini 

regeret 

regerent 

regerCtur 
Perfect 

regerentur 

rexerim 

rexeris 

rexerit 

rexenmus 

rexerftis 

rexerint 

rsim 
^*«"''-     Sis 

Past  Perfect 

.    -    fsimus 
'''''•  <  sitis 

rexissem 

rexissSs 

rexisset 

rex  issfimus 
rex  issgtis 
rex  issent 

ressem 
rectus,  i 

<  essCs 
-a,  -um  1 

esset 

red,   f^i""' 
I  essent 

io6 


CONJUGATION  OF  REGO 


ACTIVE 


rege,  nde  thou 
regite,  rule  ye 


PASSIVE 


IMPERATIVE 


Present 


rege  re,  be  thou  ricled 
regimini,  be  ye  ruled 


regito,  thou  shall  rule 
regito,  he  shall  rule 
regitote,  ye  shall  rule 
regunto,  they  shall  rule 


Future 


regitor,  thou  shall  be  ruled 
regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled 


regunto r,  they  shall  be  ruled 


INFINITIVE 

regi,  to  be  ruled 

rectus,  -a,  -um  esse,  to  have  been 
ruled 
FuT.     recturus,  -a,  -um  esse,  to  be     rectum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  ruled 
about  to  rule 


Pres.    rege  re,  to  rule 

Perf.    rexisse,  to  have  ruled 


PARTICIPLES 

Pres.    regens,  -entis,  ruling  Pres.    

FuT.     recturus,  -a,  -um,  rt-^^z// /^      Ger.     regendus,   -a,    -um,   to  be 
rule  ruled 

Past     Past     rectus, -a, -um,  ^^z^/;2^/^<?^« 

ruled^  ruled 


GERUND 


NOM. 


Gen.  regendi,  of  ruling 

DAT.  r&gtndio,  for  ruling 

Ace.  rege  ndum,  ruling 

Abl.  regendo,  by  ruling 


SUPINE  (Active  Voice) 

Acc.    rectum,  to  rule 

Abl.     rectu,  to  rule,  in  the  ruling 


CONJUGATION  OF  AUDIO 
245.  FOURTH  CONJUGATION.    /-VERBS.    AUDIO 

Principal  Parts  :  audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditus 
pREs.  Stem  audi-  Perf.  Stem  audiv-  Part.  Stem  audit- 

ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

/  am  heard^  etc. 

audi  or  audimur 

audiri8(-re) 


107 


I  hear,  etc. 

audio  audimus 

audi  8  auditis 

audit  audiunt 


audltur 


audi  mini 
audiuntur 


Past  Descriptive 

/  was  hearing,  etc.  /  was  heard,  etc. 

audiSbam        audiSbamus  audiSbar  audi6bamur 

audiSbSris  (-re)      audiSbamini 


audiebas 
audiSbat 


audiebatis 
audiSbant 


audiebatur 


audiebantur 


/  shall  hear,  etc. 

audi  am  audiSmus 

audifis  audietis 

audiet  audient 


Future 

/  shall  be  heard,  etc. 

audiar  audiSmur 

audieria  (-re)  audiCmini 


audietur 


audientur 


Perfect 


/  have  heard,  etc. 

audivi  audiv  imus 

audiv  isti         audiv  istis 
audiv  it  audiv  6runt  (-re) 


auditus, 
-a,-um 


/  have  been  heard,  etc. 

auditi,  f'"""' 


sum 
es 
Lest 


<  estis 

-ac,  -a  1 

Lsunt 


:o8 


CONJUGATION  OF  AUDIO 


ACTIVE 


/  had  heard,  etc. 


audiveram 

audiveras 

audlverat 


audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 


PASSIVE 


Past ■ Perfect 


audit  us, 
-a,  -urn 


/  had  been  heard,  etc. 
reram 


eras 
erat 


,    .  reramus 

audit  1,  I 

->,  eratis 
-ae, -a  i 

iterant 


I  shall  have  heard,  etc. 


Future  Perfect 

I  shall  have  been  heard,  etc. 


audivero 

audlveris 

audiverit 


audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audlverint 


audit  us,  I     . 

<!  ens 
-a, -urn    I 

^erit 


audit  i,  J 
-ae,  -a  i 


^  rerimus 
eritis 


erunt 


audi  am 
audi  as 
audi  at 


audiamus 
audiatis 
audi  ant 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 


audiar 

audiaris  (-re) 
audiatur 


audiamur 
audiamini 
audiantur 


audi  rem  audiremus 

audi  res  audiretis 

audi  ret  audi  rent 


Past 

audirer 
audireris  (-re) 
audiretur 


audiremur 
audiremini 
audirentur 


audiverim       audiverimus 
audi  V  eris         audiv  eritis 
audiv  erit         audiv  erint 


Perfect 


auditus, 
-a,  -um 


Sim 


sit 


audit  i, 
-ae,  -a 


simus 
sitis 
tsint 


Past  Perfect 


audiv  issem 
audiv  issgs 
audiv  isset 


audiv  issemus 
audiv  issetis 
audiv  issent 


auditus,  , 

\  esses 
-a,  -um    I 


ressem         ,  _  ressemus 
I  audit  1, 

\  essetis 
-ae, -a 
esset  t  essent 


CONJUGATION  OF  AUDIO 


109 


ACTIVE 


audi,  hear  thou 
indite,  hear  ye 


audi  to,  thou  shalt  hear 
audits,  he  shall  hear 
audi  tote,  ye  shall  hear 
audi  unto,  they  shall  hear 


PASSIVE 


IMPERATIVE 

Present 


audi  re,  be  thou  heard 
audi  mini,  be  ye  heard 


Future 


auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard 
auditor,  he  shall  be  heard 


audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard 


infinitive 


pREs.    audi  re,  to  hear 

Perf.   audivisse,  to  have  heard 


audiri,  to  be  heard 
audit  us,  -a,  -um  esse,  to  have  been 
heard 
FuT.     audit  urus,  -a,  -um  esse,  to      audit  um  iri,   to   be  about  to   be 
be  about  to  hear  heard 


PARTICIPLES 


Pres.    audi  fins,  -ientis,  hearing  Pres.    

FuT.     auditurus, -a, -um,  rtr/^/w/ /^      Ger.     audiendus.  -a,  -um,  to  be 
hear  heard 

Past     Past     audit  us,   -a,   -um,    having 

been  heard,  heard 


GERUND 


NOM. 


Gen.  audiendi,  of  hearing 

1  > AT.  audi  endO,  for  hearing 

Ace.  audiendum,  hearing 

Abi..  audiendO,  by  hearing 


SUPINE  (Active  Voice) 

Acc.     audit  um,  to  hear 
Ai!L.     audit  u,    to    hear,    in    the 
hearing 


no 


CONJUGATION  OF  CAPIO 


VERBS  IN  -10  OF  THE  THIRD  CONJUGATION     ' 

246.  Certain  verbs  in  -15  do  not  belong  to  the  fourth  conju- 
gation but  to  the  third.  In  the  present  system,  however,  they 
follow  the  fourth  conjugation  wherever  in  the  fourth  conju- 
gation a  vowel  follows  the  i  of  the  stem.  Verbs  of  this  class 
are  conjugated  as  follows : 

capio,  take 

Principal  Parts  :  capio,  capere,  cepi,  captus 

Pres.  Stem  cape-  Perf.  Stem  cep-  Part.  Stem  capt- 


ACTIVE 

PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

capio 
capis 
capit 

capimus 

capitis 

capiunt 

capior 
cape  lis  (-re) 
capitur 

Past  Descriptive 

capimur 
capimini 
capiuntur 

capiebam 
capiebas . 
capiebat 

capiebamus 

capiebatis 

capiebant 

I                   capiebar 

capiebaris  (-re) 
capiebatur 

Future 

capiebamur 
capiebamlni 
capiebantur 

capiam 

capies 

capiet 

capiSmus 

capietis 

capient 

capiar 

capieris  (-re) 
capietur 

capiSmur 
capiemini 
capientur 

Perfect 
cepi,  cepisti,  cep  it,  etc.  captus,  -a,  -um  sum,  es,  est,  etc. 

Past  Perfect 
ceperam,  cep  eras,  ceperat,  etc.      captus,  -a,  -um  eram,  eras,  erat,  etc. 

Future  Perfect 
capers,  ceperis,  ceperit,  etc.  captus,  -a,  -um  ero,  eris,  erit,  etc. 


CONJUGATION  OF  CAPIO 


III 


ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

cai)iam.  capias,  capiat,  etc.  capiar,  -iiris  (-re),  -iatur,  etc. 

Past 
cape  rem,  caperts,  cape  ret,  etc.     caperer,  -ereris  (-re),  -ergtur,  etc. 

Perfect 
ceperim,  ceperis,  ceperit,  etc.       captus,  -a,  -um  sim,  sis,  sit,  etc. 

Past  Perfect 
ccpissem,  cepiss6s,  ccpisset,etc.   captus, -a, -umessem,  essSs,  es8et,etc. 


IMPERATIVE 

Present 


2D  Pers.  cape  capite 


Future 


2D  Pers.   capitfl  capitOte 

3D  Pers.   capita  capiuntO 


cape  re  capimini 


capitor    

capitor    capiuntor 


INFINn 

nvE 

Pres. 

cape  re 

capi 

Perf. 

cepisse 

captus,  -a,  -um  esse 

FUT. 

capturus, -a, -um  esse 

captum  iri 

PARTICIPLES 

Pres. 

capigns,  ientis 

Pres 

Put. 

capttinis,  -a,  -um 

Ger.    capiendus,  -a.  -um 

Past 

Past    captus,  -a,  -um 

SUPINE  (Active  Vo.cii 

GERUND 

Gen. 

capiendi 

Acc.     captum 

etc. 

Abl.     capta 

112 


CONJUGATION  OF  DEPONENT  VERBS 


DEPONENT  VERBS 

247.  A  number  of  verbs,  called  depojiefit,  have  in  general 
the  forms  of  the  passive  but  the  meanings  of  the  active. 

Deponent  verbs  have,  however,  the  following  active  forms : 
the  future  infinitive,  the  present  and  future  participles,  the 
gerund,  and  the  supine. 

Passive  in  meanmg  as  well  as  in  form  are  always  the 
future  passive  participle  (or  gerundive)  and  sometimes  the  past 
participle. 

Deponent  verbs  are  inflected  like  regular  verbs.    Examples : 


Principal 
Parts 


I.  hortor,  hortari,  hortatus  sum,  ^irge 
II.  vereor,  vereri,  veritus  sum,/mr 

III.  sequor,  sequi,  secutus  syxm,  follow 

IV.  partior,  partiri,  partitus  sum,  share,  divide 


INDICATIVE 

Pres. 

hortor 

vereor 

sequor 

partior 

hortaris  (-re) 

vereris  (-re) 

sequeris  (-re) 

partlris  (-re) 

hortatur 

veretur 

sequitur 

partltur 

hortamur 

veremur 

sequimur 

partimur 

hortaminl 

veremini 

sequiminl 

partimini 

hortantur 

verentur 

sequuntur 

partiuntur 

P.  D. 

hortabar 

verebar 

sequebar 

partiebar 

FUT. 

hortabor 

verebor 

sequar 

partiar 

Perf. 

hortatus  sum 

veritus  sum 

secutus  sum 

partitus  sum 

P.P. 

hortatus  eram 

veritus  eram 

secutus  eram 

partitus  eram 

F.P. 

hortatus  ero 

veritus  ero 

secutus  ero 

partitus  ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Pres. 

horter 

verear 

sequar 

partiar 

Past 

hortarer 

vererer 

sequerer 

partirer 

Perf. 

hortatus  sim 

veritus  sim 

secutus  sim 

partitus  sim 

P.  p.    hortatus  essem    veritus  essem     secutus  essem    partitus  essem 


SEMI-DEPONENT  VERBS 


"3 


Pres.  hortare 
FuT.    hortator 


IMPERATIVE 

verfire  sequere 


veretor 


sequitor 


partire 
partitor 


INFINITIVE 

vereri  sequi 


Pres.  hortari  vereri  sequi  partirl 

Perf.  hortatus  esse       veritus  esse        secutus  esse       partitus  esse 
Fn.    hortaturus  esse    veritQrus  esse    secuturus  esse    partitQrus esse 


Pres.  hort&ns 

FuT.  hortiturus 

Past  hortatus 

Ger.  hortandus 


hortandi,  etc. 


hortatum,  -tu 


PARTICIPLES 

verens  sequens 

veriturus  secuturus 

veritus  secutus 

verendus  sequendus 

GERUND 

verendi,  etc.       sequendi,  etc. 

SUPINE 

veritum,  -tu       secfitum,  -tu 


partiSns 
partiturus 
partitus 
partiendus 


partiendi,  etc. 


partitum,  -tu 


a.  Deponent  verbs  in  -i(J  of  the  third  conjugation  are  inflected  like 
the  passive  of  capiO  (§  246). 


SEMI-DEPONENTS 

248.  A  few  verbs,  called  semi-deponents,  have  active  forms 
in  the  present  system,  and  passive  forms  with  active  meanings 
in  the  perfect  system.    These  are  : 

audeo,  audere,  ausus  sum,^  dare 
fido,  fidere.  fisus  sum,  trust 
gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus  sum,  rejoice 
80le5,  solere,  solitus  sum,  be  accustomed 

a.  Some  of  the  compounds  of  vertO,  turn,  are  deponent  except 
in  the  perfect  system:  as,  reverter,  reverti  (infin.),  reverti  (perf.), 
reversus,  rdurn. 

1  The  forms  ausim,  aa«Ia,  ausit,  auslnt  occur  as  perfect  subjunctives. 


114  THE  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATIONS 

THE  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATIONS 

249.  There  are  two  periphrastic  conjugations,  the  active  and 
the  passive. 

a.  The  active  periphrastic  conjugation  denotes  2i  future  or  intended 
action,  and  is  made  by  combining  the  future  active  participle  with 
the  forms  of  sum. 

h.  The  passive  periphrastic  conjugation  denotes  obligation^  necessity^ 
or  propriety,  and  is  made  by  combining  the  gerundive  with  the 
forms  of  sum. 

250.  The  following  is  the  inflection  of  the  active  and  passive 
periphrastic  forms  of  a  verb  of  the  first  conjugation.  The 
inflection  is  similar  in  the  other  conjugations. 

ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

laudaturus  sum,  I  am  about  laudandus  sum,  I  am  to  be 

to  (or  intend  to)  praise  (or  must  be)  praised 

Past  Descriptive 
laudaturus  eram  laudandus  eram 

Future 
laudaturus  ero  laudandus  ero 

Perfect 
laudaturus  ful  laudandus  ful 

Past  Perfect 
laudaturus  fueram  laudandus  fueram 

Future  Perfect 
laudaturus  fuero  laudandus  fuero 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 

ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


115 


laudaturus  sim 
laudaturus  essem 


Present 


Past 


laudandus  sim 


laudandus  essem 


Perfect 
laudaturus  fuerim  laudandus  fuerim 

Past  Perfect 
laudaturus  fuissem  laudandus  fuissem 

INFINITIVE 

Present 


laudaturus  esse 


laudandus  esse 


Perfect 
laudaturus  fuisse  laudandus  fuisse 

a.  The  periphrastic  conjugations  lack  the  imperative,  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 

251.  The  irregular  verbs  are  sum,  vol6,  n615,  mil6,  ferO.  edO, 
do,  eO,  queC,  fiO,  and  their  compounds. 

In  verbs  that  are  regular  the  personal  endings  are  preceded 
by  the  thematic  or  stem  vowel  (cf.  §§  210,  221).  Irregular 
verbs  contain  forms  in  which  the  personal  endings  are  added 
directly  to  the  root,  with  no  intervening  vowel, ^  as  in  es-t, 
vul-t,  etc.  However,  most  of  the  forms  of  the  irregular  verbs 
differ  in  no  way  from  those  of  regular  verbs. 

^  Because  of  the  absence  of  the  thematic  vowel  (§  221),  irregular  verbs  are 
sometimes  called  athftnatic. 


Ii6 


CONJUGATION  OF  POSSUM 


SUM  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS 


252.  For  the  conjugation  of  sum  see  §  241.  Most  com- 
pounds of  sum  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb. 

The  present  participle,  which  is  lacking  in  sum,  appears  in 
the  participial  adjectives  ab-sens  {absent)  from  absum,  and  prae- 
sens  {present)  from  praesum. 

253.  Prosum,  help,  is  a  compound  of  prod  (the  earlier  form 
of  pro)  and  sum.  The  final  d  of  the  preposition  disappears 
before  a  consonant,  but  is  retained  before  a  vowel. 

Hence  in  the  present  indicative  the  inflection  is : 

prosum  pro'sumus 

prodes  prodes'tis 

prodest  prosunt 

Similarly  we  have  proderam,  prodero,  prodessem,  etc. 

254.  Possum,  be  able,  in  its  present  system  is  a  compound 
of  the  adjective  potis,  or  pote,  able,  and  sum.  The  remaining 
forms  are  from  an  obsolete  verb  potere. 

.  Principal  Parts  :  possum,  posse,  potui, 


INDICATIVE 

Singular  Plural 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Singular  Plural 


Pres. 


Past 

FUT. 

Perf. 
P.  Perf. 
F.  Perf. 


possum 

potes 

potest 

poteram 

potero 

potui 

potueram 

potuero 


pes  sumus 

potes 'tis 

possunt 

poteramus 

pGterimus 

potuimus 

potueramus 

potuerimus 


possim 
possis 
possit 
possem 

potuerim 
potuissem 


possi  mus 
possl'tis 
possint 
posse'mus 


potuerimus 
potuissemus 


INFINITIVE 


Perf.  potuisse 


Pres.   posse 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres.  potens,  potentis  (adjective),  powerful 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 
volO,  nOlO,  and  mAlO 


117 


255.  N516  and  malO  are  compounds  of  voW.  N515  is  for  ne 
(no/)  -h  voW,  and  malO  for  mfi  (from  magis,  more)  -\-  volO.  The 
form  vis,  the  second  person  singular  of  vol6,  is  from  a  different 
root. 

These  verbs  are  inflected  as  follows : 


V0I6,  velle,  volui,  — 
malO,  malle,  malui, 


-,  fig  wiliing^  will,  wish 
-,  be  unwilling^  will  not 
— ,  be  more  willing,  prefer 


INDICATIVE 

Singular 

PRES. 

volo 

nolo 

malo 

vis 

non  vis 

mavis 

vult 

non  vult 
Plural 

mavult 

volumus 

nolumus 

malumus 

vultis 

non  vultis 

mavul'tis 

volunt 

nolunt 

malunt 

\\  Descr. 

volebam 

nolebam 

malebam 

FUT. 

volam,  voles,  etc. 

nolam,  noles,  etc. 

malam,  males,  etc. 

Perf. 

volui 

nolui 

malui 

p.  Perf. 

volueram 

nOlueram 

malueram 

F.  Perf. 

voluero 

noluerS 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Singular 

maluerO 

Pres. 

velim 

n6lim 

malim 

veils 

nOlis 

malis 

velit 

n5lit 

malit 

Ii8     CONJUGATION  OF   VOLO,  NOLO,  AND  MALO 


Plural 

veli'mus 

noli'mus 

mall 'mus 

veil 'tis 

noli 'tis 

mali'tis 

velint 

nolint 
Singular 

malint 

Past 

vellem,  velles,  etc. 

nollem,  nolles,  etc. 
Plural 

mallem,  mj 

velle'mus 

nolle 'mus 

malle'mus 

velle'tis 

nolle'tis 

malle'tis 

vellent 

nollent 

mallent 

Perf. 

voluerim 

noluerim 

maluerim 

P.  Perf. 

voluissem 

noluissem 

imperative 

noli,  nolite 
nolito,  nolitote 
nolito,  nolunto 

maluissem 

rRES. 
FUT. 

infinitive 

Pres. 

velle 

nolle 

malle 

Perf. 

voluisse 

noluisse 
participle 

maluisse 

Pres. 

volens,  -entis 

nolens,  -entis 

Note.   Vellem  is  for  vel-sem,  and  velle  for  vel-se  (cf.  §  51). 


FERO  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS 

256.  Fero,  bear,  has  two  independent  roots  :  fer- in  the  present 
system,  and  tul-,  for  tol-  (cf.  tollo),  in  the  perfect.  The  past 
participle  latus  is  for  tlatus,  tla-  being  another  form  of  the 
root  tol-.  The  past  subjunctive  ferrem  is  for  fer-sem,  and  the 
present  infinitive  ferre  for  fer-se  (cf.  §§  51,  233.  b,  237.  a.  i). 

Fero  is  inflected  as  follows  : 


CONJUGATION  OF  lERO 


119 


Principal  Parts:  ferO,  ferre,  tuli,  Ifitus 
Prbs.  Stem   fer-  Perf.  Stem  tul-  Part.  Stem  Ut- 


ACTIVK 

PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Pres. 

fero 

ferimus 

feror                 ferimur 

fers 

fertis 

ferris  (-re)        ferimini 

fert 

ferunt 

fertur               feruntur 

Past  Descr. 

ferebam 

ferebar 

Fl'T. 

feram,  feres,  etc. 

ferar,  fereris,  etc. 

Perf. 

tuli 

latus,  -a,  -um  sum 

Past  Perf. 

tuleram 

latus,  -a,  -um  eram 

Future  Perf. 

tulero 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

latus,  -a,  -um  ero 

Pres. 

feram,  feras,  etc. 

ferar,  feraris,  etc. 

Past 

ferrem 

ferrer 

Perf. 

tulerim 

latus,  -a,  -um  sim 

Past  Perf. 

tulissem 

IMPERATIVE 

latus,  -a,  -um  essem 

Pres.  2D  Pers. 

fer 

ferte 

ferre                 ferimini 

FuT.   2D  Pers. 
3D  Pers. 

ferto 
ferto 

fertote 
ferunto 

fertor                feruntor 

infinitive 

Pres. 

ferre 

ferri 

Perf. 

tulisse 

latus,  -a,  -um  esse 

FuT. 

laturus,  -J 

a,  -um  esse 

participles 

latum  iri 

Pres. 

ferens,  -entis                      Pres. 

Kit. 

laturus,  -; 

a,  -um                  Ger. 

ferendus,  -a,  -um 

Past 

Pact 

latus,  -a,  -um 

SUPINE  (Active  Voice) 

GERUND 

Gen. 

ferendi 

Acc.  ferendum 

Acc.  latum 

DAT. 

ferendo 

Abl.  ferendo 

Abl.  latQ 

I20 


CONJUGATION  OF  EDO 


a.  The  compounds  of  fer6,  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  are 


the  following : 

ad- 

adfero 

adferre 

attull 

allatus 

au-,  ab- 

aufero 

auferre 

abstuli 

ablatus 

con- 

confero 

conferre 

contuli 

conlatus 

dis-,  di- 

differo 

differre 

distuli 

dilatus 

ex.,e- 

effero 

efferre 

'    extuli 

elatus 

in- 

infero 

inferre 

intull 

inlatus 

ob- 

offero 

offerre 

obtuli 

oblatus 

re- 

refero 

referre 

rettuli 

relatus 

sub- 

suffero 

sufferre 

sustuli 

sublatus 

Note.  Ab-  and  au-  are  two  distinct  prepositions  with  the  same  meaning. 
Sustuli  and  sublatus  serve  also  respectively  as  the  perfect  indicative  and 
past  participle  of  the  verb  tollo. 


EDO 

257.  Edo,^^/,  has  the  inflection  of  a  regular  verb  of  the  third 
conjugation  and,  in  addition,  alternative  forms  in  certain  tenses 
of  the  present  system.    Thus  : 

Principal  Parts  :  edo,  edere  (esse),  edi,  esus 

ACTIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Pres.    edo,  edis  (es),  edit  (est) 

edimus,  editis  (estis),  edunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Pres.    edam  (edim),  edas  (edis),  edat  (edit) 

edamus  (edimus),  edatis  (editis),  edant  (edint) 

Past    ederem  (essem),  ederes  (esses),  ederet  (esset) 

ederemus  (essemus),  ederetis  (essetis),  ederent  (essent) 

INFINITIVE 

edere  (esse) 
Pres.  2d  Pers.   ede  (es)  edite  (este) 

FuT.   2D  Pers.    edito  (esto)  editote  (estote) 

3D  Pers.    edito  (esto)  edunto 


IMPERATIVE 

Singular  Plural 


CONJUGATION  OF  DO  121 

PASSIVE 

Pres.  In  Die.  3D  Sing,    editur  (estur) 
Past  Subjv.  3D  Sing,     ederetur  (essetur) 

•  a.  Note  that  the  long  vowel  of  the  shorter  forms  distinguishes 
them  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  the  verb  esse,  be. 

h.  The  shorter  forms  of  the  present  indicative,  and  the  present 
subjunctive  forms  edim,  edis,  etc.,  were  those  commonly  used  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  classical  period. 

c.  Comedo,  consume^  has  either  comSstus  or  comgsus  as  a  past 
participle. 

DO 

258.  The  verb  d6,  give,  is  conjugated  like  a  verb  of  the  first 
conjugation,  but  the  root  vowel  (a-)  is  everywhere  short  except 
in  the  second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative  and  the 
present  imperative  active,  and  in  the  nominative  singular  of  the 
present  participle. 

Principal  Parts  :  d6,  dire,  dedi.  datus 
Pres.  Stem   di-  Perk.  Stem  dcd-  Part.  Stem  dat- 


ACTIVE 

PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Pres. 

do 
das 

damus 
datis 

daris  (-re)           damini 

dat 

dant 

datur                 dantur 

P.  Descr. 

dabam 

dabar 

Put. 

dabo 

dabor 

Perf. 

dedi 

datus,  -a,  -um  sum 

P.  Perf. 

dederam 

datus,  -a,  -um  eram 

F.  Perf. 

dedero 

datus,  -a,  -um  er6 

122  CONJUGATION  OF  DO 

ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Pres.  dem,  des,  det,  etc.  ,deris(-re),  detur,  etc. 

Past  darem  darer 

Perf.  dederim  datus,  -a,  -um  sim 

P.  Perf.  dedissem  datus,  -a,  -um  essem 

IMPERATIVE 


Pres 

2D  Pers.   da               date 

dare                  damin! 

"Pl'T 

2D  Pers.  dato            datote 
3D  Pers.  dato           danto 

1  . 

r  L  i. 

dator                dantor 

INFINITIVE 

Pres 

dare 

dari 

Perf 

dedisse 

datus,  -a,  -um  esse 

FUT. 

daturus,  -a,  -um  esse 

datum  iri 

PARTTCIPLES 

Pres 

dans,  dantis                       Pres. 

FUT. 

daturus,  -a,  -um                 Ger. 

dandus,  -a,  -um 

"P  A  CT 

P\^T 

datus,  -a,  -um 

SUPINE  (Active  Voice) 

X  Ao  1 

GERUND 

Gen.   dandi           Ace.   dandum 

Acc.   datum 

DAT.  dando          Abl.  dando 

Abl.  datu 

a.  In  early  Latin  and  in  poetry  occur  forms  from  the  related  root 
du-:  as,  present  subjunctive  duim,  duis,  etc.,  and  sometimes  duam, 
duas,  etc. 

h.  In  compounds,  do  generally  has  the  meaning  put}  Most  of 
these  compounds,  if  the  prefix  is  a  monosyllable,  are  conjugated  as 
verbs  of  the  third  conjugation :  as,  condo,  condere,  condidi,  conditus, 
found. 

1  Some  grammarians  consider  this  as  a  different  verb  from  do,  give. 


259. 


CONJUGATION   OF  EO 

e6,  go 
I'RiNCiPAL  Parts  :  eO,  ire,  ii  (ivi),  itum 


123 


pRt 

s.  St  KM    1- 

Perf.  Stem  i- 

or  iv- 

Part.  Stem   it 

- 

INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

IMPERATIVE 

Sl.NG. 

Plur. 

Pres. 

eo       imus 
is        itis 
it         eunt 

earn 

2D  Pers.   i 

ite 

Past 
Put. 
Perf. 

ibam 
ibo 
ii  (ivi) 

irem 

srim) 

■  2D  Pers.  ito 
.3D  Pers.  ito 

itote 

ierim  (iv( 

eunto 

P.  Perf. 

ieram  (iveram) 

issem  (Ivissem) 

F.  Perf. 

iero  (ivero) 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLES 

Pres. 

ire 

Pres.  iens,  euntis 

Perf. 

isse  (ivisse) 

FuT.    iturus,  -a, 

-um 

Kit. 

iturus,  -a,  -um  esse 

Ger.    eundum 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

Gen. 

eundi         Ace. 

eundum 

Ace.    itum 

DAT. 

eundo       Abl. 

eundo 

Abl.    itu 

a.  The  passive  of  the  simple  verb  eO  is  used  only  in  the  third 
person  singular  ^ :  as,  itur,  itum  est,  etc.  But  transitive  compounds, 
such  as  adeO,  approach,  ineC,  enter,  have  the  passive  complete. 

b.  In  the  perfect  system  the  forms  with  v  are  very  rare. 

c.  The  compound  ambiO,  go  round,  is  inflected  regularly  like  a  verb 
of  the  fourth  conjugation. 

d.  In  prOdeC,  go  forth,  the  preposition  retains  its  original  final  d. 

260.  QueO,  be  able,  and  neqifeO,  be  unable,  are  inflected  like 
efl,  but  are  rare  except  in  the  present  indicative  active. 

*  Verbs  appearing  only  in  the  third  person  singular  are  called  impenonal^ 
because  they  have  no  personal  subject. 


124  CONJUGATION  OF  FIO 

Flo  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS 

261.  The  active  of  facio,  make,  is  regular,^  but  in  the  passive 
fio,  de  made,  become,  takes  its  place  in  the  present  system, 
except  in  the  gerundive  faciendus.  The  perfect  passive  system 
is  formed  regularly  from  facio. 

Principal  Parts  :  fio,  fieri,  factus  sum 

SUBJUNCTIVE  IMPERATIVE 

fiam  2D  Pers.  fi       fite 


INDICATIVE 

Pres. 

fin 

Ac 

fit          fiunt 

Past 

fiebam 

FUT. 

fiam 

Perf. 

factus,  -a,  -um  sum 

P.  Perf. 

factus,  -a,  -um  eram 

F.  Perf. 

factus,  -a,  -um  ero 

fierem 

factus,  -a,  -um  sim 
factus,  -a,  -um  essem 


INFINITIVE  PARTICIPLES 

Pres.  fieri  Pres.  

Perf.         factus,  -a,  -um  esse  Ger.  faciendus,  -a,  -um 

FuT.  factum  in  Past  factus,  -a,  -um 

a.  Most  prepositional  compounds  of  facio  are  inflected  regularly 
like  verbs  in  -io  of  the  third  conjugation. 

Active,  conficio,  conficere,  confeci,  c5nfectus 
Passive,  conficior,  confici,  c5nfectus  sum 

&.  Syntactic  compounds  (cf.  §  292.  «)  of  faci5,  —  like  benefacio, 
calefacio,  etc.,  —  in  which  facio  remains  unchanged,  have  the  forms 
of  fio  in  the  passive :  as,  benefio,  -fieri,  -factus  sum. 

c.  Isolated  forms  of  fi5  occur  in  a  few  words :  as,  confit,  defit,  etc. 

1  But  it  has  imperative  fac  (§235.  <:)  and,  besides  the  regular  forms,  the 
future  perfect  faxo  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  faxim. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS 


25 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

262.  Defective  verbs  lack  certain  forms. 

263.  The  following  defective  verbs  lack  the  present  system 


coepi,  began 

Odi,  hate 

INDICATIVE 

memini,  remem, 

Perf. 

coepi 

odi 

memini 

P.  Perf. 

coepcram 

oderam 

memineram 

F.  Perf. 

coepero 

odero 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

meminero 

Perf. 

coeperim 

oderim 

meminerim 

P.  Perf. 

coepissem 

odissem 

IMPERATIVE 
•       INFINITIVE 

meminissem 

memento 
mementote 

Perf. 

coepisse 

odisse 

meminisse 

KlTT. 

coepturus*-a, 

-um  esse     osurus,  -a, 

PARTICIPLES 

-um  esse 

Past        coeptus,  -a,  -um,  begun    osus,  -a,  -um,  hating  or  hated 
I'uT.         coepturus,  -a,  -um  osurus,  -a,  -um,  likely  to  hate 

a.  When  used  with  the  passive  infinitive,  the  form  of  coepi  is 
regularly  passive :  as,  coeptus  sum  vocfiri,  /  began  to  be  called ;  but 
coepi  vocare,  /began  to  call.    I'or  the  present  system  incipiS  is  used. 

h.  The  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect  of  6di  and  memini 
have  the  meanings  of  a  present,  past,  and  future  respectively. 

6di,  /  hate       5deram,  /  hated  {was  hating)       5der5,  /  shall  hate 

The  passive  of  6di  is  supplied  by  the  idiom  odi6  esse,  to  be  hated 
(lit.  to  be  for  hatred). 


126  DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

264.  Many  verbs  are  used  only  in  the  present  system. 

maereo,  -ere,  grieve        "  ferio,  -ire,  strike 

265.  Some  verbs  occur  in  only  a  few  forms. 
a.  Aio,  say : 

INDICATIVE 

Pres.  aio,  ais,  ait ;  , ,  aiunt 

P.  Descr.  aiebam,  aiebas,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Pres.  ,  aias,  aiat ;  , ,  aiant  (rare) 

IMPERATIVE  PARTICIPLE 

al  (rare)  aiens 

1.  The  vowels  a  and  i  are  pronounced  separately  (a-is,  a-it)  except 
sometimes  in  old  or  colloquial  Latin.  Before  a  vowel,  one  i  stands 
for  two  (see  §  i8):  thus  aio  was  pronounced  ai-yo  and  was  sometimes 
written  alio. 

2.  The  second  singular  ais  with  the  interrogative  -ne  is  often  written 
ain.    An  old  past  aibam,  aibas,  etc.  (dissyllabic)  is  sometimes  found. 

3.  The  present  ait  often  has  the  meaning  of  a  perfect. 

b.  Inquam,  saj',  except  in  poetry,  is  used  only  in  direct  quota- 
tions (cf.  the  English  quoth). 

INDICATIVE 

Pres.  inquam,  inquis,  inquit ;  inquimus,  inquitis  (late),  inquiunt 

P.  Descr.  , ,  inquiebat ;  , ,  

FuT.  ,  inquies,  inquiet ;  ,  , 

Perf.         inquii,  inquisti, ;  ,  , 

IMPERATIVE 

Pres.  inque  Fut.  inquito 

I.  The  only  common  forms  are  the  present  inquam,  inquis,  inquit, 
inquiunt,  and  the  future  inquies,  inquiet.  Inquam  is  sometimes,  and  inquit 
is  often,  used  as  a  perfect. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS  127 

c.  The  deponent  firi,  to  speak,  has  the  following  forms : 

INDICATIVE 

Pres.  , ,  fatur ;  , ,  fantur 

FuT.  fabor, ,  fabitur ;  , , 

Perf.  , ,  f atus, -a, -urn  est ; , ,  fati,  -ae,  -a  sunt 

P.  Perf.  fatus,  -a,  -um  eram,  ,  fatus,  -a,  -um  erat ;  , 


IMPERATIVE  INFINITIVE 

Pres.  fare  Pres.  fari 

PARTICIPLES 

Pres.  fans,  fantis,  etc.  (in  singular) 

Ger.  fandus,  -a,  -um,  to  be  spoken  of 

Past  fatus,  -a,  -um,  having  spoken 

GERUND  SUPINE 

Gen.  fandi  Abl.  fatu 

Abl.  fando 

I .  Several  forms  occur  in  compounds  :  as,  praefabor,  affari. 

d.  Isolated  defective  forms  are  : 

Pres.  Indic.  quaesS,  I  be^,  quaesumus 

Imperative    salve, //<///,  salvgte,  salvetS ;  In  fin.  salvgre 

Imperative    (h)av6, //^//,  (h)av6te,  (h)av6t6 ;  In  fin.  (h)av6re 

Imperative    cedo,  give,  plural  cette 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS 

266.  Impersonal  verbs  are  used  only  in  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  indicative  and  subjunctive,  and  in  the  infinitive. 
The  following  verbs  are  almost  always  impersonal : 

decet.  //  is  becoming  paenitet,  //  repents 

fulgurat,  //  lightens  piget.  //  grieves 

libet  (lubet),  //  pleases  pluit.  //  rains 

licet,  /■/  is  permitted  pudet,  //  shames 

miseret,  //  distresses  refert,  //  concerns 

ninguit  or  niogit,  /'/  snows  taedet.  //  wearies 

oportet,  //  is  fitting  tonat.  //  thunders 


128  LIST  OF  VERBS 

a.  Verbs  that  generally  have  a  personal  subject  are  sometimes  used 
impersonally. 

accidit,  //  happens         placet,  it  pleases         videtur,  it  seems 

b.  Intransitive  verbs  in  the  passive  are  always  impersonal. 

pugnatur,  tkere  is  fighting  i^X.  is  fought) 

itur,  some  one  goes  (it  is  gone) 

parcitur  mihi,  /  am  spared  (it  is  spared  to  me) 

ventum  est,  they  {he,  we,  etc.)  came  (it  was  come) 

LIST  OF  VERBS 

267.  Regular  verbs  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  Conju- 
gations are  omitted  from  this  list  unless  lacking  the  Perfect  or 
the  Participial  System. 

Compounds  of  regular  formation,  with  the  vowel  of  the 
root  syllable  unchanged,  and  conjugated  like  the  simple  verbs, 
are  omitted.  A  prefixed  hyphen  indicates  that  the  verb  is 
found  only  in  compounds. 

The  Past  Participle  of  transitive  verbs  is  given  in  the  mas- 
culine, that  of  intransitives  in  the  neuter  (cf.  §  212  and  Note). 

ab-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditus  ac-colo,  3,  -ul,  — 

ab-icio,  3,  -ieci,  -iectus  [iacio]  ac-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 

ab-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actus  [ago]  acesco,  3,-acuI,  —  [inceptive  of  aceo, 

ab-oleo,  2,  -evi,  -itus  290.  a  ;  compound  coacesco] 

ab-olesco,  3,  -olevT,  —  [aboleo]  acuo,  3,  -uT,  -utus 

ab-ripio,  3,  -ripui,  -reptus  [rapio]  ad-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditus 

abs-cid5,  3,  -cidl,  -cisus  [caedo]  ad-fer5,  -ferre,  attuli,  allatus.  Irregu- 

abs-condo,  3, -dl  (-didi), -ditus  lar,  256.  ^ 

ab-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  —  ad-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [facio] 

abs-tineo,  2,  -tinui,  -tentus  [teneo]  ad-gredior,  -T,  -gressus  sum  [gradior]. 

ab-sum,  abesse,  afuT,  afuturus.  Irreg-  Deponent 

ular,  252  ad-hibeo,  2,  -ui,  -itus  [habeo] 

accerso,  see  arcess5  ad-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actus  [ago] 

ac-cido,  3,  -cldl,  —  [cado]  ad-imo,  3,  -emi,  -emptus  [emo] 

ac-cida,  3,  -cTdl,  -cisus  [caedo]  ad-iplscor,  -1,  -eptus  sum  [apTscor]. 
ac-cipio,  3,  -cepT,  -ceptus  [capi5]  Deponent 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


129 


ad-olesc6,  3,  -olevl,  -ultum  [alesco] 
ad-<juIr6,3,-quisIvi,-quisitus[quaero] 
ad-sentior,  -irl,  -sensus  sum.  Deponent 
ad-sideo,  2,  -sedT,  -sessum  [sedeo] 
ad-sido,  3,  -sedT  (-sldl),  — 
ad-sto,  I ,  -stiti,  — 
a-gnosco,  3,  -gnovi,  -gnltus  [nosco] 
ago,  3,  cgT,  actus  [-igd  in  most  com- 
pounds, but  see  cogo  and  perago] 
aio.    Defective,  265.  a 
albeo,  2,  — , — 

alesco,  3,  — ,  —  [alo,  290.  a ;  com- 
pounds adolesco,  coalesce,  etc.] 
algeo,  2,  alsT,  — 

algesco,  3,  alsl,  —  [algeo],  290.  a 
alo,  3,  aluT,  altus  (alitus) 
amb-igo,  3,  — ,  —  [ago] 
amb-io,  4,  -il  (-IvT),  -Ttus  (ambibat) 

[eo],  259.  c 
amicio,  4,  amixi  (-cul),  amictus  [iado] 
I       ango,  3,  — ,  — 
P       aperia,  4,  aperul,  apertus 

aplscor,  -i,  aptus  sum.    Deponent 
ap-pell6,  3,  -pull,  -pulsus 
ap-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressus  [premo] 
arceo,  2,-uT,  —  [-erceo  in  compounds] 
arcesso  (accerso),  3,  arcessTvT,  arces- 

situs 
ardeo,  2,  arsl,.  arsurus 
ardesco,  3,  arsi,  — [ardeo],  290.  a 
arco,  2,  — ,  — 

aresco,  3,  -aruT,  —  [areo],  290.  a 
arguo,  3,  -ui,  -utus 
ar-rigo,  3,  -rexl,  -rectus  [rego] 
ar-ripio,  3,  -ui,  -reptus  [rapid] 
a-scendo,  3,  -dl,  -scensus  [scando] 
a-spergo,  3,  -spersT,  -spersus  [spargo] 
at-tendo,  3,  -tendi,  -tentus 
at-tined,  2,  -tinui,  -tentus  [tcned] 


at-tingo,  3,  -tigi,  -tactus  [tango] 

audeo,  audere,  ausus  sum.  Semi- 
deponent,  248 

au-fero,  -ferre,  abstulT,  ablatus. 
Irregular,  z$6.  a 

augeo,  2,  auxl,  auctus 

ave  (have),  avere  (hav6re).  Defec- 
tive, 265.  d 

balbutio,  4,  — ,  — 
batuo,  3,  -uI,  — 
bibo,  3,  bibl,  potus 

cado,  3,  cectdi,  casum  [-cido  in  com- 
pounds] 

caedo,  3,  cecTdi,  caesus  [-cIdo  in 
compounds] 

caleo,  2,  -uT,  -iturus 

calesco,  3,  -caluT,  —  [caleo],  290.  a 

called,  2,  — ,  — 

calveo,  2,  — ,  — 

candeo,  2,  -uT,  — 

candesco,  3,  -candui,  —  [candeo], 
290.  a 

caneo,  2,  -ui,  — 

canescd,  3,  canui,  —  [caneo],  290.  a 

cano,  3,  cecini,  —  [-cino  in  most 
compounds,  perfect  -cinul] 

capesso,  3,  capessivl,  —  [capio], 
290.  b.  I 

capio,  3,  cepT,  captus  [-cipio  in  com- 
pounds except  antecapio] 

careo,  2,  -ul,  -iturus 

carpo,  3,  carpsT,  carptus  [-cerpo  in 
compounds] 

caveo,  2,  cavT,  cautus 

cedo  (imperative).    Defective,  265.  d 

cedo,  3,  cessi,  cessus 

-cells,  3.  — '  — 


I30 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


-cendo,  3,  -cendi,  -census 

censeo,  2,  -ui,  census 

cerno,  3,  crevi,  -cretus 

cieo  (-cio),  ciere  (-cire),  civi,  citus 
(-cTtus) 

cingo,  3,  cinxl,  cinctus 

-cio,  see  cieo 

circum-sisto,  3,  -steti  (-stiti),  — 

circum-sto,  i ,  -stetl  (-stitI),  — 

clango,  3,  — ,  — 

claresco,  3,  clarui,  —  [clareo],  290.  a 

claudeo,  2,  — ,  — ;  see  claudo 
QimP) 

claudo  {lintp\  3,  — ,  — 

claudo  {close\  3,  clausi,  clausus 
[-cludo  in  compounds] 

clueo,  2,  — ,  — 

co-alesco,  3,  -alui,  -alitum 

coepi,  -isse,  coeptus.  Defective, 
263 

co-erceo,  2-,  -uT,  -itus  [arceo] 

co-gn5sco,  3,  -gnovT,  -gnitus  [nosco] 

cogo,  3,  coegT,  coactus  [ago] 

col-ligo,  3,  -leg!,  -lectus  [lego] 

colo,  3,  colui,  cultus 

comb-uro,  see  iiro 

com-minTscor,  -1,  -mentus  sum.  De- 
ponent 

como,  3,  compsT,  comptus  [emo] 

com-pello,  3,  -pull,  -pulsus 

com-perco,  3,  -persT,  —  [parco] 

com-pesco,  3,  -cul,  — 

com-pingo,  3,  -pegT,  -pactus  [pango] 

com-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressus[prem6] 

com-pungo,  3,  -punxi,  -punctus 

con-cido,  3,  -cIdT,  —  [cado] 

con-cido,  3,  -cTdT,  -cisus  [caedo] 

con-cino,  3,  -uT,  —  [cano] 

con-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptus  [capio] 


con-cludo,  3,  -clusi,  -clusus  [claudo] 
con-cupisco,  3,  -cupivl,  -cupltus[cupi6] 
con-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 
con-cutio,  3,  -cussi,  -cussus  [quatio] 
con-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditus 
con-fercio,  4,  — ,  -fertus  [farcio] 
con-fero,    -ferre,    contulT,    conlatus. 

Irregular,  256.  a 
con-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [facio] 
con-fit.    Defective,  261.  ^r 
con-fiteor,  -eri,  -fessus  sum  [fateor]. 

Deponent 
con-f  ringo,  3,  -fregi,  -fractus  [frang5] 
con-icio,  3,  -ieci,  -iectus  [iacio] 
con-lTdo,  3,  -ITsT,  -ITsus  [laedo] 
con-liiceo,  2,  — ,  — 
con-quTro,     3,      -quislvi,     -quTsItus 

[quaero] 
con-sisto,  3,  -stitT,  — 
con-spergo,     3,     -spersi,     -spersus 

[spargo] 
con-stituo,  3,  -ui,  -utus  [statuo] 
c5n-st6,  I,  -stitT,  -staturus 
con-sulo,  3,  -uT,  -sultus 
con-tendo,  3.  -tend!,  -tentus 
con-ticesco,  3,  -ticuT,  —  [taceo] 
con-tineo,  2,  -tinuT,  -tentus  [teneo] 
con-tingo,  3,  -tigi,  -tactus  [tang5] 
con-tundo,  3,  -tudi,  -tiisus  (-tunsus) 
coquo,  3,  coxT,  coctus 
cor-rigo,  3,  -rexT,  -rectus  [rego] 
cor-ripio,  3,  -ripuT,  -reptus  [rapid] 
crebresco,  3,  -crebruT,  — ,  290.  a 
credo,  3,  -didI,  -ditus  [-do] 
crepo,  I,  crepuT  (-crepavi),  .-crepitus 
ere  SCO,  3,  crevI,  cretum  [creo],  290.  a 
crudesco,  3,  -cruduT,  — ,  290.  a 
cubo,  I ,  cubui  (cubavT),  cubitum 
cudo,  3,  -cudi,  -cusus 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


13 


-cumbo,  3,  -cubui,  -cubitum  [com- 
pounds with  de-,  ob-,  pro-,  re-,  and 
sub-  lack  the  past  participle] 

cupio,  3,  cupivi,  cupitus 

curro,  3,  cucurrT,  cursum  [in  the 
perfect,  compounds  have  either 
-curri  or  -cucurri] 

debeo,  2,  -ul,  -itus  [habeo] 
de-cerpo,  3,  -cerpsT,  -cerptus  [carpo] 
decet,  decere,  decuit.    Impersonal 
de-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptus  [capio] 
de-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursus 
de-do,  3,  -did!,  -ditus 
de-fetlscor,  -i,  -fessus  sum  [fatisco]. 

Deponent 
dego,  3,  — ,  —  [ago] 
deleo,  2,  -evi,  -etus 
de-libuo,  3,  -ui,  -utus 
de-ligo,  3,  -legT,  -lectus  [leg5] 
demo,  3,  dempsT,  demptus  [em5] 
dc-pell6,  3,  -pull,  -pulsus 
de-primo,  3,  -pressl,  -pressus  [premo] 
depso,  3,  -sui,  -stus 
dc-scendo,  3,  -di,  -scensum  [scando] 
de-silio.  4,  -ul  (-ii),  —  [salio] 
de-sipio,  3,  — ,  —  [sapio] 
dc-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  -stitum 
de-spondeo,  2,  -di,  -sponsus 
de-tendo,  3,  — ,  -tensus 
de-tineo,  2,  -tinuT,  -tentus  [tened] 
de-vertor,  -T,  — .    Deponent 
dico,  3,  dixT,  dictus  (imperative  die, 

235.0 

dif-fero,  -ferre,  dlstulT,  dilatus.  Ir- 
regular, 256.  rf 

dif-fiteor,  -erl,  —  [fateor].  Depo- 
nent 

dl-gnosco,  3.  -gnovT,  —  [nosco] 


di-ligo,  3,  -lexl,  -lectus  [lego] 

dir-ibeo,  2,  — ,  -itus  [habeo] 

dir-imo,  3,  -emi,  -cmptus  [emo] 

di-ripio,  3.  -ripui,  -reptus  [rapio] 

disco,  3,  didici,  — 

dis-crepo,  i ,  -crepuT  (-crepavT),  — 

dis-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 

dis-icio,  3,  dis-iecl,  -iectus  [iacio] 

dis-sideo,  2,  -sedl,  —  [sedeo] 

dis-silio,  4,  -ui,  —  [salio] 

dis-tend5,  3,  -tendl,  -tentus 

di-sto,  I,  — ,  — 

ditesco,  3,  — ,  — 

di-vido,  3,  -vTsT,  -visus 

do,  dSre,  dedi,  datus  [so  circumdo, 
but  most  other  compounds  are 
of  the  third  conjugation ;  see 
abdo,  addo,  condo,  etc.].  Irreg- 
ular, 258 

doceo,  2,  -uT,  doctus 

-dolesco,  3,  -doluT,  —  [doled],  290.  a 

domo,  I,  -ui,  -jtus 

-dormlsco,  3,  -dormlvi,  —  [dormio], 
290.  a 

duco,  3,  duxT,  ductus  (imperative 
due,  235.  r) 

dulcesco,  3,  — ,  — ,  290.  a 

duresco,  3,  durul,  — ,  290.  a 

e-buUib,  4.  cbuUil,  — 

edo  {eat),  edere  (esse),  cdl,  csus. 
Irregular,  257 

^■6.0  {put  fort li)s  3.  -did?,  -ditus 

ef-fero,  -ferre,  extull,  elatus.  Irregu- 
lar, 256.  a 

ef-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [fado] 

egeo,  2,  -uT,  — 

e-ido,  3,  -iecl,  -iectus  [iado] 

e-lido,  3.  -ui,  -itus  [-lido] 


132 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


e-ligo,  3,  -legl,  -lectus  [lego] 
e-mico,  i,  -mipui,  — 
e-mineo,  2,  -ui,  —  [maneo] 
emo,  3,  emi,  emptus  [-imo  in  most 

compounds,    as    adimo,    dirimo ; 

but  coemo,  com5,  demo,  promo, 

sumo] 
e-nec6,    i,  -necui  (-necavT),  -nectus 

(-necatus) 
eo,  Tre,  ii  (ivi),  itum  [so  in  compounds 

except  ambio,  4,  -IvI,  -itus;    see 

also  veneo].    Irregular,  259 
e-rigo,  3,  -rexl,  -rectus  [rego] 
esurio,  4,  — ,  esuriturus  [edo],  290.  d 
e-vado,  3,  -vasi,  -vasus 
e-vanesco,  3,  evanuT,  — ,  290.  a 
ex-cipio,  3,  -cepT,  -ceptus  [capio] 
ex-cludo,  3,  -clusl,  -clusus  [claudo] 
ex-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 
ex-cutio,  3,  -cussi,  -cussus  [quatid] 
ex-erceo,  2,  -ui,  -itus  [arceo] 
ex-im5,  3,  -emi,  -emptus  [emo] 
ex-olesco,  3,  -olevi,  -oletum  [alesco] 
ex-pello,  3,  rpull,  -pulsus 
ex-pergiscor,     -1,     -perrectus     sum 

[pergo].    Deponent 
ex-plodo,  3,  -sT,  -sus  [plaudo] 
ex-pungo,  3,  -punxT,  -punctus 
ex-silio,  4,  -ui  (-il),  —  [salio] 
ex-sisto,  3,  -stitT,  -stitum 
ex-sto,  I,  — ,  — 

ex-tendo,  3,  -tendl,  -tentus  (-tensus) 
exuo,  3,  -uT,  -utus 

facesso,  3,  facessT,  facessTtus  [facio], 
290.  b.  I 

facio,  3,  feci,  factus  [-ficio  in  prepo- 
sitional compounds]  (imperative 
fac,  235.  ^ ;  for  passive  see  fio) 


fallo,  3,  fefelli,  falsus 

farcio,   4,    farsi,    fartus   [-fercio   in 

compounds] 
fateor,  -eri,  fassus  sum  [-fiteor   in 

compounds].   Deponent 
fatisco,  3,  — ,  — ,  290.  a 
faveo,  2,  favl,  fautum 
-fendo,  3,  -fendi,  -fensus 
ferio,  4,  — ,  — 
fero,  ferre,  tulT,  latus  (imperative  fer, 

235.  ^).    Irregular,  256 
ferveo,    2,   fervi   (ferbuT),  — ;    also 

fervo,  3 
fido,     fidere,     fisus     sum.      Semi- 
deponent,  248 
figo,  3,  fixT,  fixus 
findo,  3,  fidi,  fissus 
fingd,   3,  flnxT,  fictus 
fio,  fieri,  factus  sum.    Irregular,  used 

as  the  passive  of  facio,  261 
flecto,  3,  flexT,  flexus 
fleo,  2,  -evi,  -etus 
-fligo,  3,  -flixT,  -fllctus 
fldreo,  2,  -ul,  — 

floresco,  3,  -floruT,  —  [floreo],  290.  a 
fluo,  3,  fluxl,  fluxum 
fodio,  3,  fodi,  fossus 
[for],  fari,  fatus.    Defective,  265.  c 
foveo,  2,  fovi,  fotus 
frango,  3,  fregi,  fractus  [-fringe  in 

compounds] 
fremo,  3,  fremuT,  — 
frico,  I ,  fricui,  frictus  (fricatus) 
frigeo,  2,  — \  — 

frlgesco,  3,  -frixi,  —  [frigeo],  290.  a 
frigo,  3,  frixi,  frictus 
frondeo,  2,  — ,  — 
fruor,   -T,    fructus    sum    (fut.    part. 

fruiturus).    Deponent 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


133 


fugio,  3,  fugi,  fugitunis 

fulcio,  4,  fulsi,  fultus 

fulgeo,  2,  fulsi,  — ;  also  fulgo,  3 

fundo,  3,  fudi,  fusus 

fungor,  -I,  functus  sum.    Deponent 

furo,  3,  — ,  — 

gannio,  4,  — ,  — 

gaudeo, gaudere,  gavlsus  sum.  Semi- 
deponent,  248 

gemo,  3,  gemul,  — 

gero,  3,  gessi,  gestus 

gestio,  4,  -IvI,  — 

gigno,  3,  genul,  genitus 

glisc5,  3,  — ,  — 

glubo,  3,  — ,  — 

gradior,  -T,  gressus  sum  [-gredior  in 
compounds].    Deponent 

habeo,  2,  -ui,  -itus  [-hibeo  in  most 
compounds;  but  praebeo  (from 
prae-hibeo),  diribeo  (from  dis- 
hibeo),  debeo  (from  de-hibeo)] 

haereo,  2,  haesi,  haesurus 

haurio,  4,  hausT,  haustus  (fut.  part, 
preferably  hausurus) 

have,  see  ave 

hebeo,  2,  — ,  — 

hebesco,  3,  — ,  —  [hebeo],  290.  a 

hinnio,  4,  — ,  — 

hisco,  3,  — ,  —  [hio],  290.  a 

horreo,  2,  horrul,  — 

horresco,3,-horruI, — [horreo],  290. « 

iaceo,  2,  iacuT,  — 

iacio,  3,  iecT,  iactus  [-ido  in  com- 
pounds except  superiacio] 
Ico,  3,  Id,  ictus 
i-gnosco,  3,  -gnovi,  -gnotum  [noscoj 


imbuo,  3,  -ui,  -utus 
im-mineo,  2,  — ,  —  [maneo] 
im-pell5,  3,  -pull  -pulsus 
im-pingo,  3,  -pegi,  -pactus  [pango] 
in-cess6,  3,  incessivi,  —  [incedo] 
in-cido,  3,  -cTdl,  -casurus  [cado] 
in-cldo,  3,  -cTdl,  -clsus  [caedo] 
in-cipio,  3,  -cepT,  -ceptus  [capio] 
in-cludo,  3,  -clusT,  -clusus  [claudo] 
in-col6,  3,  -uT,  — 

in-curro,  3,  -currl  (-cucurri),  -cursum 
in-cutio,  3,  -cussT,  -cussus  [quatio] 
ind-igeo,  2,  -uT,  —  [egeo] 
ind-ipiscor,  -T,  -eptus  sum  [aplscor]. 

Deponent 
in-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditus 
indulgeo,  2,  indulsl,  indultum 
induo,  3,  -ui,  -utus 
in-gredior,  -T,  -gressus  sum  [gradior]. 

Deponent 
in-hibeo,  2,  -ui,  -itus  [habeo] 
in-lldo,  3,  -lisi,  -lisus  [laedo] 
in-olesc6,  3,  -olevl,  —  [alescd] 
inquam.    Defective,  265.  b 
in-qulr6,3,  -quIsIvT,  -qulsTtus[quaero] 
Tnsideo,  2,  -sedl,  -sessus  [sedeo] 
In-sTdo,  3,  -sedl,  -sessus 
Tn-silio,  4,  -ui,  —  [salio] 
Tn-sisto,  3,  -stitl,  — 
in-stituo,  3,  -uT,  -utus  [statuo] 
Tn-sto,  I,  -stiti,  -staturus 
intel-lego,  3,  -lexT.  -lectus 
inter-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [fado] 
Irascor,  -1,  Tratus  sum.    Deponent 
iubeo,  2,  iussT,  iussus 
iungo,  3,  iunxT,  iunctus 
iuvenesco,  3,  — ,  — ,  290.  u 
iuvo,  I,  iuvT,  iutus  (fut.  part,  also 

iuvatunis) 


134 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


labor,  -1,  lapsus  sum.    Deponent 

lacesso,  3,  lacessTvT,  lacessitus,  290. 
b.  I 

lafedo,  3,  laesT,  laesus  [-lido  in  com- 
pounds] 

lambo,  3»  — >  — 

langued,  2,  — ,  — 

languesco,  3,  langui,  —  [langueo] 

lateo,  2,  -ui,  — 

lavo,  3,  lavi,  lautus  (lotus)  (also  reg- 
ular of  the  first  conjugation) 

lego,  3,  leg!,  lectus  [so  in  most  com- 
pounds, but  the  root  vowel 
changes  in  coUigo,  deligo,  diligo, 
eligo,  seligo;  and  diligo,  intellego, 
and  neglego  have  x  in  the  perfect : 
as,  diligo,  3,  dllexT,  dilectus] 

libet  (early  lubet),  -ere,  libuit  or  libi- 
tum est.    Impersonal,  266 

liceo,  2,  licuT,  — 

licet,  -ere,  licuit  or  licitum  est  (fut. 
part,  liciturum).    Impersonal,  266 

-licio,  3,  -lexT,  -lectus  [for  *lacio  in 
compounds ;  but  elici5,  3,  elicuT, 
elicitus] 

lino,  3,  lev!  (ITvT),  litus 

linquo,  3,  llquT,  -lictus 

liqueo,  2,  licul,  — 

liquesco,  3,  -licul,  —  [liqueo],  290.  a 

liquor,  T-,  — .    Deponent 

liveo,  2,  — ,  — 

loquor,  -T,  locutus  sum.    Deponent 

luce5,  2,  luxT,  — 

lucesco  (-Cisco),  3,  -luxT,  —  [liiceo], 
290.  <^ 

lud5,  3,  liisT,  lusus 

Ii5ge5,  2,  liixT,  — 

luo  {ioose\  3,  luT,  luiturus 

-luo  {wash),  3,  -lul,  -lutus 


madeo,  2,  madul,  — 

madesco,    3,    madul,    —   [made5], 

290.  a 
maereo,  2,  — ,  — 
malo,   malle,  malui,  — .   Irregular, 

255 

mando,  3,  mandi,  mansus 

maneo,  2,  mansi,  mansus 

mansuesco,  see  suesco 

marcesco,  3,  -marcuT,  —  [marceo], 
290.  a 

maturesco,  3,  matiiruT,  — ,  290.  a 

medeor,  -erl,  — .    Deponent 

meminl,  -isse.    Defective,  263 

mereo,  2,  merui,  meritus,  or  depo- 
nent, mereor,  etc. 

mergo,  3,  mersT,  mersus 

metior,  -Tri,  mensus  sum.    Deponent 

meto,  3,  messuT,  -messus 

metuo,  3,  -uT,  -utus 

mico,  I,  micui,  —  [so  in  com- 
pounds except  dimico,  i,  -avi, 
-atum] 

minuo,  3,  -uT,  -iitus 

misce5,  2,  -cuT,  mixtus 

misereor,  -erl,  miseritus  (rarely 
misertus)  sum.    Deponent 

miseret.    Impersonal,  266 

mitesco,  3,  — ,  — ,  290.  a 

mitto,  3,  misi,  missus 

molior,  -Trl,  -Ttus  sum.    Deponent 

molo,  3,  moluT,  molitus 

mordeo,  2,  momordi,  morsus 

morior,  -T  (-Tri),  mortuus  sum  (fut. 
part,  moriturus).    Deponent 

moveo,  2,  movT,  motus 

mulceo,  2,  mulsT,  mulsus 

mulgeo,  2,  mulsT,  mulsus  (mulctus) 

muttio,  4,  -IvI,  -Itus 


LIST  Ol-   VERBS 


135 


nanciscor,  -I,  nactus  (nanctus)  sum. 
Deponent 

nascor,  -i,  natus  sum.    Deponent 

neco,  I ,  -avi  (-ui),  -atus  [but  eneco,  i, 
-necui  (-necavi),  -nectus  (-necatus)] 

necto,  3,  nexf  (nejoii),  nexus 

neg-lego,  3,  -lexl,  -lectus 

neo,  2,  nevl,  — 

nequeo,  -quire,  -quivi,  -quitus.  De- 
fective, 260 

nigresco,  3,  nigrul,  — ,  290.  a 

ninguit  (ningit),  3,  ninxit.  Imper- 
sonal, 266 

niteo,  2,  nituT,  — 

nitescd,  3,  — ,  —  [niteo],  290.  a 

nitor, -T,  nlsus  (nixus)  sum.  Deponent 

-niveo,  2,  -nivT  (-nIxIX  — 

no,  I,  navl,  — 

noceo,  2,  nocuT,  nociturus 

nolo,  nolle,  noluT,  — .   Irregular,  255 

nosco,  3,  novi,  notus  [so  in  com- 
pounds, except  that  agnosco  has 
agnitus  and  cognosce  has  cognitus] 

notesco,  3,  notui,  — ,  290.  a 

niibo,  3,  nupsi,  nuptum 

-nuo,  3,  -nui,  — 

ob-d5,  3,  -didi,  -ditus 
ob-livTscor,  -i,  oblitus  sum.  Deponent 
ob-mutesco,  3,  -mutul,  — 
ob-sideo,  2,  -sedl.  -sessus  [sedeo] 
ob-sTdo,  3,  — ,  — 
ob-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  -stitum 
obs-olesco,  3,  -olevl,  -oletum  [alesco] 
ob-sto,  I,  -stiti,  -staturus 
ob-tineo,  2,  -tinui,  -tentus  [teneo] 
ob-tingit,    3,    obtigit   [tango].     Im- 
personal, 266 
ob-tundo,  3,  -tudi,  -tusus  (-tunsus) 


oc-callcsc6,  3,  -callui,  —  [calleo] 
oc-cido,  3,  -cidl,  -casum  [cado] 
oc-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -cisus  [caedo] 
oc-cino,  3,  -cinui,  —  [cano] 
oc-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptus  [capio] 
oc-cul6,  3,  -cului,  -cultus 
oc-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 
odi,  odisse,  osurus.    Defective,  263 
of-fero,     -ferre,     obtulT,      oblatus. 

Irregular,  256.  /z 
oleo  {smell\  2,  olui,  — 
operio,  4,  operui,  opertus 
oportet,  -ere,  -uit.    Impersonal,  266 
op-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressus  [premo] 
ordior,  -iri,  orsus  sum.    Deponent 
orior,  -iri,  ortus  sum  (fut.  part,  oritu- 

rus).    Deponent ;    usually  of  the 

third   conjugation  except  in  the 

present  infinitive 
os-tendo,  3,  -tendi,  -tentus  (-tcnsus) 

paciscor,  -i,  pactus  sum  [compound 
depeciscor].   Deponent 

paenitet,  -ere,  -uit.    Impersonal,  266 

palleo,  2,  pallui,  — 

pallesco,  3,  pallui,  —  [palleo],  290.  a 

pando,  3,  pandi,  pansus  (passus)  [so 
expando.butdispandoordispendo] 

pango,  3,  pepigi  (pegi  or  panxi), 
pactus  [-pingo  in  compounds,  per- 
fect -pegi] 

parco,  3,  peperci  (parsi),  parsurus 
[compound  compered  or  com  parco] 

pared,  2,  -ui,  — 

pario,  3,  peperi,  partus  (fut.  part, 
pariturus) 

partior,  -iri.  -itus  sum.    Deponent 

parturio,  4,  -ivi,  —  [pario],  290.  d 

pasco,  3,  pavT,  pastus 


136 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


pateo,  2,  patuT,  — 

patior,  -1,  passus  sum  [-petior  in  com- 
pounds].   Deponent 

pave5,  2,  pa VI,  — 

pavesco,  3,  -pavi,  —  [paveo],  290.  a 

pecto,  3,  pexT,  pexus 

pel-licio,  3,  -lexT,  -lectus  [-licio] 

pello,  3,  pepulT,  pulsus  [compounds 

'  have  -pull  in  the  perfect,  but  re- 

pello  has  reppuli  for  repepull] 

pendeo,  2,  pependl,  -pensum  [com- 
pounds have  -pendT  in  the  perfect] 

pendo,  3,  pependl,  pensus  [com- 
pounds have  -pendT  in  the  perfect] 

per-ago,  3,  -egi,  -actus 

per-cello,  3,  -cull,  -culsus 

per-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursus 

per-do,  3,  -did!,  -ditus 

per-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [facio] 

per-fringo,  3,  -fregl,  -fractus  [frango] 

pergo,  3,  perrexT,  perrectus  [rego] 

-perio,  4,  -peri,  -pertus ;  also  -perior, 
deponent  [so  in  compounds,  but 
reperio  has  perfect  repperi] 

per-petior,  -T,  -pessus  sum  [patior]. 
Deponent 

per-quTro,  3,  -quTsIvI,  -quTsTtus 
[quaero] 

per-sto,  I,  -stitl,  -staturus 

per-tineo,  2,  -ui,  —  [teneo] 

per-tundo,  3,  -tudi,  -tusus 

petesso  (petisso),  3,  — ,  —  [peto], 
290.  b,  I 

peto,  3,  petivi  (-il),  petitus 

piget,  -ere,  piguit  or  pigitum  est. 
Impersonal,  266 

pingo,  3,  pTnxT,  pictus 

pinso  (piso),  3,  plnsuT  (pisivi),  pTstus 
(pinsltus) 


plango,  3,  planxi,  planctus 
plaudo,    3,    plausi,    plausus   [so    in 

compounds  except  explodo] 
plecto,  3,  plexl,  plexus 
-plector,  -I,  -plexus  sum.    Deponent 
-ple5,  2,  -pie  VI,  -pletus 
plico,    I,  -plicui    (-plica vi),  -plicitus 

(-plicatus) 
pluit,  3,pluit(pluvit).  Impersonal,  266 
polleo,  2,  — ,  — 

pol-lu5,  3,  -uT,  -utus  [-luo  {wash)^ 
pono,  3,  posui,  positus  [sino] 
porr-icio,  3,  — ,  porrectus  [iacio] 
por-rigo(porgo),3,-rexi,-rectus[rego] 
posco,   3,  poposcT,  —  [so  in  com- 
pounds], 290,  h.  N. 
pos-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  -sessus  [sedeo] 
possum, posse, potuT, — .  Irregular, 254 
potior,  -Tri,    -Ttus   sum.    Deponent; 
usually  of  the  third  conjugation 
in  the  present  system  except  in 
the  infinitive 
poto,  I ,  -avi,  -atus  (potus) 
praebeo,  2,  -uT,  -itus  [habeo] 
prae-cello,  3,  — ,  — 
prae-cino,  3,  -cinuT,  —  [cano] 
prae-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  — 
prae-sagio,  4,  -TvT,  — 
prae-sideo,  2,  -sedT,  —  [sedeo] 
prae-sto,  i ,  -stitT,  -stitum  (-statum) 
prandeo,  2,  prandl,  pransus 
pre-hendo,    3,    -hgndl,    -hensus,    or 

prendo,  3,  prendT,  prensus 
premo,  3,  press!,  pressus  [-primo  in 

compounds] 
prendo,  see  prehendo 
pro-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 
prod-eo,  -Ire,  -ii,  -itum.     Irregular, 
259.^ 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


•37 


prod-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actus  [ago] 
pro-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditus 
pro-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [facio] 
pro-ficTscor,  -I,  profectus  sum.     De- 
ponent 
pro-fiteor, -eri,  prof essus  sum  [  fateor]. 

Deponent 
pro-mi  net),  2,  -ul,  —  [maneoj 
promo,  3,  prompsi,  promptus  [emo] 
pro-silio,  4,  -ul  (-Tvl),  —  [salio] 
pro-sum,    prodesse,    profuT,    profu- 

turus.  Irregular,  253 
pro-tendf),  3,  -tendi,  -tentus  (-tensus) 
psallo,  3,  -1,  — 
pubesco,  3,  pubuT,  — ,  290.  a 
pudet,  -ere,  puduit  or  puditum  est. 

Impersonal,  266 
pungo,  3,  pupugi,  punctus  [perfect 

-punxl  in  compounds] 
putesco,  3,  putui,  —  [puteo],  290.  a 

quaero,  3,  quaesIvT,  quaesltus  [-qulro 

in  compounds] 
quaeso,  3.    Defective,  265.  d 
quatio,  3,  — ,  quassus  [-cutio,  -cussi, 

-cussus  in  compounds] 
queo,  quire,  quivi,  quitus.  Defective, 

260 
queror,  -T,  questus  sum.    Deponent 
quiesco,  3,  quievi,  quietum,  290.  a 

rabo  (rabid),  3,  — ,  — 

rado,  3,  rasi,  rasus 

rapid,  3,  rapui^raptus  [-ripio,  -ripui, 

-reptus  in  compounds] 
re-cido,  3.  reccldi,  recasurus  [cado] 
re-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -cisus  [caedo] 
re<ipi6,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptus  [capio] 
re-cludo,  3,  -clusi,  -clusus  [claudo] 


red-do,  3,  reddidi,  redditus 
red-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actus  [ago] 
red-imo,  3,  -emi,  -emptus  [emo] 
re-fell6,  3,  -felli,  —  [fallo] 
re-fercio,  4,  -fersi,  -fertus  [farcio] 
re-fero,   -ferre,   rettuli,    relatus.    Ir- 
regular, 256.  <z 
re-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [facio] 
rego,  3,  rexi,  rectus  [-rigo  in  com- 
pounds, but  see  pergo  and  surgo] 
re-miniscor,  -i,  — .    Deponent 
reor,  reri,  ratus  sum.    Deponent 
re-pello,  3,  reppuli,  repulsus 
re-perio,  4,  repperi,  rep)ertus  [pario] 
repo,  3,  repsi,  — 

re-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressus  [premo] 
re-quir5, 3,  -quisivi,  -quisitus  [quaero] 
re-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  —  [sedeo] 
re-silio,  4,  -ui  (-ii),  —  [salio] 
re-sipisco,  3,-sipivi,  — ^[sapio],  290.  <z 
re-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  -stitum 
re-spergo,  3,  -spersi,-spersus[sparg6] 
re-spondeo,  2,  -spondi,  -spdnsus 
re-sto,  I,  -stiti,  — 
re-tendo,  3,  -tendi,  -tentus  (-tensus) 
re-tineo,  2,  -tinui,  -tentus  [teneo] 
re-tundo,  3,  rettudi,  retunsus  (tusus) 
rideo,  2,  risi,  -risus 
rigeo,  2,  rigui,  — 

rigesco,  3,  rigui,  —  [ngeo],  290.  a 
rodo,  3,  rosi,  rosus 
rubeo,  2,  — ,  ^— 

rubesco,  3,  rubui,  —  [rubeo],  290.  a 
rudo,  3,  — ,  — 
rumpo,  3,  rupi,  ruptus 
ruo,  3,  rui,  -rutus  (fut.  part,  ruitunis) 

saepio,  4,  saepsi,  saeptus 

salio,  4,  salui, — [-silio  in  compounds] 


138 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


salve,  salvere.    Defective,  265.  d 

sancio,  4,  sanxT,  sanctus 

sapio,  3,  sapTvT,  —  [-sipio  in  com- 
pounds] 

sarcio,  4,  sarsT,  sartus 

scabo,  3,  scabi,  — 

scalpo,  3,  scalpsT,  scalptus 

scando,  3,  -scendl,  -scensus  [-scendo 
in  compounds] 

scateo,  2,  — ,  — :  also  scato,  3 

scindo,  3,  scidi,  scissus 

scTsco,  3,  scIvT,  scTtus  [scio],  290.  a 

scribo,  3,  scripsi,  scriptus 

sculpo,  3,  sculpsT,  sculptus 

seco,  I,  secuT,  sectus 

sedeo,  2,  sedT,  sessum  [-side5  in 
compounds  except  circumsedeo 
and  supersedeo] 

se-ligo,  3,  -legl,  -lectus  [lego] 

sentio,  4,  sensT,  sensus 

sepelio,  4,  sepelTvT,  sepultus 

sequor,  -I,  secutus  sum.    Deponent 

sero  {entwine),  3,  -seruT,  sertus 

sero  (j-^'Z£'),'3,  sevT,  satus 

serpo,  3,  serpsT,  — 

sido,  3,  sTdi  (-sedi),  -sessum 

sileo,  2,  -uT,  — 

sino,  3,  sTvi,  situs 

sisto,  3,  stitl,  status 

sitio,  4,  -Tvi,  — 

soleo,  solere,  solitus  sum.  Semi- 
deponent,  248 

solvo,  3,  solvT,  solutus  [luo  {loo5e')\ 

sono,  I,  -ui,  -aturus 

sorbeo,  2,  sorbuT  (rarely  sorpsT),  — 

spargo,  3,  sparsT,  sparsus  [-spergo 
in  compounds] 

sperno,  3,  sprevT,  spretus 

-spicio,  3,  -spexT,  -spectus 


splendeo,  2,  — ,  — 

spondeo,  2,  spopondT,  sponsus 
[perfect  -spondi  in  compounds] 

spuo,  3,  -spuT,  -spiitus 

squaleo,  2,  — ,  — 

statuo,  3,  -uT,  -Litus  [-stituo  in  com- 
pounds] 

sterno,  3,  stravi,  stratus 

sternuo,  3,  -uT,  — 

sterto,  3,  -stertuT,  — 

stinguo,  3,  -stinxl,  -stinctus 

sto,  stare,  stetl,  statiirus  [perfect 
-stitl  in  most  compounds] 

strepo,  3,  -uT,  — 

strideo,  2,  strldi,  — ;  also  stride,  3 

stringo,  3,  strlnxT,  strictus 

struo,  3,  struxT,  structus 

studeo,  2,  -ui,  — 

stupeo,  2,  -uT.  — 

stupesco,  3,  -stupul,  —  [stupeo] 

suadeo,  2,  suasi,  suasus 

sub-do,  3,  -did!,  -ditus 

sub-igo,  3,  -egl,  -actus  [ago] 

suc-cido,  3,  -cidl,  —  [cado] 

suc-cTdo,  3,  -cTdl,  -cTsus  [caedo] 

suc-curro,  3,  -currl,  -cursum 

suesco,  3,  suevT,  suetus,  290.  a 

suf-fero,  sufferre,  sustulT,  sublatus. 
Irregular,  256.  « 

suf-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectus  [facio] 

sugo,  3,  suxT,  sijctus 

sum,  esse,  ful,  futurus.  Irregular, 
241 

sumo,  3,  sumpsT,  sufcnptus  [emo] 

suo,  3,  -sui,  sijtus 

super-fluo.  3,  — ,  — 

surgo,  3,  surrexJ,  surrectum  [rego] 

sur-ripio,  3,  -ripul  (surpul),  -reptus 
[rapio] 


LIST  OF  VERBS 


39 


tabeo,  2,  — ,  — 

tabesco,  3,  tabui,  —  [tabeo],  290.  a 

taedet,  -ere,  taeduit  or  taesum  est. 

Impersonal,  266 
tango,  3,  tetigi,  tactus  [-tingo,  -tigi 

in  compounds] 
tego,  3,  texT.  tcctus 
temno,  3,  -tempsi,  -temptus 
tendo,    3,    tetendl,    tentus    (tensus) 

[perfect  -tend!  in  compounds] 
teneo,   2,  tenuT,  -tentus  [-tineo  in 

compounds] 
tergeo,  2,  tersi,  tersus ;  also,  rarely, 

tergo,  3 
tero,  3,  trivl,  tritus 
texo,  3,  texuT,  textus 
timeo,  2,  -ui,  — 

-timesco,  3,  -timuT,  —  [timeo],  290.  a 
tingo  (tinguo),  3,  tinxl,  tinctus 
toUo,  3,  sustull,  sublatus 
tondeo,  2,  -totondl  (-tondi),  tonsus 
tono,  I,  tonui,  -tonitum  (-tonatum) 
torpeo,  2,  — ,  — 
torqueo,  2,  torsi,  tortus 
torreo,  2,  torrul,  tostus 
tra-d5,  3,  -didi,  -ditus 
traho,  3,  traxi,  tractus 
trans-curro,     3,     -currT     (-cucurri), 

-cursus 
tremo,  3,  tremuT,  — 
tribuo,  3,  -uT,  -utus 
trudo,  3,  trusT,  trusus 
tueor,  -crT,  tuitus  (tutus)  sum.    De- 
ponent 
tumeo,  2,  — ,  — 

tumesco,3,-tumuT, — [turned],  290.  a 
tundo,    3,    tutudi,    tunsus    (-tusus) 

[perfect  -tudl  in  compounds,  but 
retundo  has  rettudl  for  retutudl] 


turgeo,  2,  tursi,  — 
tussio,  4,  — ,  — 

ulcTscor,  -1,  ultus  sum.    Deponent 

unguo  (ungo),  3,  unxT,  unctus 

urgeo,  2,  ursi,  — 

iiro,  3,  ussT,  ustus 

utor,  -T,  usus  sum.    Deponent 

vado,  3,  -vasT,  -vasum 

vagio,  4,  -it,  — 

valeo,  2,  -uT,  -iturus 

valesco,  3,  -valuT,  —  [valeo],  290.  a 

veho,  3,  vexT,  vectus 

vello,  3,  vein  (vulsl),  vulsus 

vendo,  3,  -didi,  -ditus  [venum  +  do  ] 

veneo  {be  sold),  -ire,  -ii,  —  [venum 
+  e6] 

venio  {come),  4,  veni,  ventum 

vereor,  -eri,  -itus  sum.    Deponent 

vergo,  3,  ^,  — 

verro  (vorro),  3,  -verri,  versus 

verto  (vorto),  3,  vertT,  versus 

vescor,  -1,  — .    Deponent 

vesperascit,  3,  vesperavit  Imper- 
sonal, 266 ;  290.  a 

veto,  I,  -ui,  -itus 

video,  2,  vTdr,  visus 

vigeo,  2,  -ui,  — 

vincio,  4,  vTnxI,  vinctus 

vinco,  3,  vTcT,  victus 

vireo,  2,  -uT,  -^ 

vTso,  3,  visT,  — 

vivo,  3,  vTxT,  victum 

void,    velle,    volul,   — .     Irregular, 

255 
volvo,  3,  volvT,  volutus 
vomo,  3,  vomui,  vomitus 
voveo,  2,  vovi,  votus 


140  FORMATION  OF  ADVERBS 

PARTICLES 

268.  Adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections 
are  called  particles.    They  have  no  inflection. 

a.  Particles  cannot  always  be  distinctly  classified,  for  many  adverbs 
are  used  also  as  prepositions  and  many  as  conjunctions. 

ADVERBS 
Formation  of  Adverbs 

269.  Most  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives  and,  like 
them,  are  compared. 

270.  Regular  Formation.  Adverbs  regularly  formed  from 
adjectives  end  in  -e  or  -ter. 

a.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  Jirst  and  second 
declensions  by  changing  the  characteristic  vowel  of  the  stem  to  -e. 

care,  dearly^  from  carus,  dear  (stem  caro-) 

amice,  like  a  friend,  from  amicus, /rie/tdly  (stem  amico-) 

Note.    The  ending  -e  is  a  relic  of  an  old  ablative  in  -ed  (of.  ^  5$.  l>). 

b.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  f/iird  declension  by 
adding  -ter  to  the  stem.  Stems  in  nt-  (nom.  -ns)  lose  the  t- ;  nearly 
all  others  are  treated  as  i-stems. 

fortiter,  bravely,  from  fortis  (stem  forti-),  brave 
acriter,  eagerly,  from  acer  (stem  acri-),  eager 
vigilanter,  watchfully,  from  vigilans  (stem  vigilant-) 
prUdenter,  prudently,  from  prQdens  (stem  priident-) 
aliter,  otherwise,  from  alius  (old  stem  ali-) 

c.  Some  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  have  adverbs 
of  both  forms  (-e  and  -ter).  Thus  durus,  hard,  has  both  dure  and 
duriter ;  miser,  wretched,  has  both  miserg  and  miseriter.  A  few  have 
only  -ter :  as,  violentus,  violent,  has  only  violenter. 


FORMATION  OF  ADVERBS  141 

271.  Special  Formations.  The  accusative  and  ablative  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns,  especially  in  the  neuter  singu- 
lar, are  often  used  as  adverbs.    Examples : 

a.  Accusative  neuter  singular : 
multum,  MUi/i  facile,  easily  ^uid,  why 

h.  Ablative  neuter  singular : 
falso,  falsely  eo,  thither  forte,  by  chance 

vulgo,  commonly  quo,  whither  cx^\>xh,  frequently 

c.  Accusative  feminine  singular  or  plural : 

partim,  partly  coram,  face  to  face   alias,  at  other  times 

vicem,  by  turns  quam,  how  foraa,  out  of  doors 

d.  Ablative  feminine  singular  or  plural : 

recta,  straightway  qua,  where  foris,  out  of  doors 

postea,  aftei  wards  una,  together  extra,  outside 

272.  Other  adverbial  endings,  some  of  which  are  case  ter- 
minations in  origin,  are  -i  or  -6,  -tim  or  -sim,  -tus  or  -itus. 

a.  The  ending  -i  or  -€  is,  originally,  a  locative  case  termination. 

ibi,  there  hie  (for  hi-ce),  here  hodie,  to-day 

ubi,  where  illic  (for  illi-ce),  there  pridie,  the  day  before 

b.  The  ending  -tim  or  -sim  originated  in  accusatives  in  -tim,  like 
partim. 

separatim,  separately         cursim,  quickly         tributim,  tribe  by  tribe 

c.  The  ending  -tus  or  -itus  is  of  doubtful  origin. 

funditus,  utterly  SiriviiXMS,  providentially  penitus,  within 

Comparison  of  Adverbs 

273.  Adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  are  similarly  compared. 
The  comparative  ends  in  -ius,  and  is  in  origin  the  neuter  accusa- 
tive singular  of  the  comparative  of  the  corresponding  adjective. 
The  superlative  may  be  formed  from  the  superlative  of  the 
corresponding  adjective  by  changing  final  -us  to  -€.  Examples 
of  adverbial  comparison  are  the  following : 


142 


COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

cars,  dearly 

carius 

carissime 

pulchre,  beautifully 

pulchrius 

pulcherrime 

Uhere,  freely 

liberius 

liberrime 

fortiter,  bravely 

fortius 

fortissime 

audacter,  boldly 

audacius 

audacissime 

facile,  easily 

facilius 

facilUme 

a.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  compared  by  using  the  adverbs  magis, 
more,  and  maximg,  most,  with  the  positive :  as,  aperte,  openly^  magis 
aperte,  maxime  aperte.    Many  adverbs  are  not  compared. 


274. 


Positive 

bene,  well 
diu,  a  long  time 
male,  ill,  badly 
magnopere^ 
multum      ]^^^^  ^ 
multum,  i7iuch 
nuper,  recently 
panim,  too  little 


Irregular  or  Defective  Comparison 

Comparative  Superlative 


prope,  near 
saepe,*  often 
satis,  e?iough 


melius,  better 
diutius,  longer 
peius,  worse 

magis,  77iore 

plus,  more 


minus,  less 
potius,  rather 
prius,  before 
propius,  nearer 
saepius,  ofte?ier 
satius,  better 


optime,  best 
diutissime,  lo?igest 
pessime,  worst 

maxime,  most 

plurimum,  most 
nuperrime,  most  recently 
minime,  least 
potissimum,  especially 
primum,  first 
proxime,  nearest 
saepissime,  oftenest 


PREPOSITIONS 

275.  Prepositions  were  not  originally  distinguished  from 
adverbs  in  form  or  meaning,  and  developed  from  them  com- 
paratively late  in  the  history  of  language.  Many  of  them  con- 
tinued to  be  used  as  adverbs  after  they  assumed  the  function 
of  prepositions. 


PREPOSITIONS 


143 


276.  The  following  prepositions  are  used  with  the  accusative 


ad.  to 

adversus  "1  •    ^  ^  j 

>  over  against,  towards 
adversum  J 

ante,  before 

apud,  at,  near 

circa     1  , 

>  around 
circum  J 

circiter,  about 

cis,  citra.  on  this  side  of 

contra,  against 

erga,  towards  (a  person) 

extra,  outside 

infra,  below 

inter,  among^  between 

intra,  inside 


iiucta,  //^ar,  beside 

Ob,  <7//  account  of 

penes,  in  the  power  of 

per,  through 

p6ne,  behind 

post,  rz/^irr  • 

praeter,  beyond,  past 

prope,  near 

propter,  on  account  of  near 

secundum,  next  to 

supra,  above 

trans,  across 

ultra,  on  the  further  side  of 

versus,  towards 


a.  Versus  always  follows  its  case :  as,  Arpinum  versus,  towards 
■irpinum. 

277.  The  following  prepositions  are  used  with  the  ablative : 


a,  ab,  abs,  away  from,  by 
absque,  without,  but  for 
coram,  ///  the  presence  of 
cum,  with 
de,  from,  down  from,  concerning 


e,  ex,  out  of 

prae,  in  comparison  with 

pr5,  in  front  of  ,  for  the  sake  of 

sine,  without 

tenus,  up  to,  as  far  as 


a.  A  is  used  only  before  consonants.  Ab  is  used  before  vowels 
or  h,  and  may  be  used  before  most  consonants.  Abs  is  used  only  in 
the  phrase  abs  t6.    Absque  is  very  rare. 

b.  Ex  is  used  before  vowels  or  h.  Before  consonants  cither  6  or 
ex  may  be  used. 

c.  Tenus  always  follows  its  case :  as,  capulO  tenus,  up  to  the  hilt. 

d.  Cum  is  usually  joined  enclitically  with  all  ablative  forms  of  the 
pronouns  ego,  tu,  sui,  qui,  and  quis:  as,  mScum,  tecum,  vObiscum, 
sScum,  quOcum,  quicum,  quibuscuin. 

Note.  In  poetry  and  late  prose  the  adverbs  palam,  procul,  and  simul 
are  used  as  prepositions  with  the  ablative. 


144  CONJUNCTIONS  AND  INTERJECTIONS 

278.  Four  prepositions,  in,  sub,  subter,  and  super,  are  used 
with  either  the  accusative  or  the  ablative. 

a.  In,  m,  into,  and  sub,  under,  with  the  accusative  denote  motion  to 
or  ifito,  with  the  ablative  rest  in. 

in  aedis  venit,  he  ca?ne  into  the  house 

in  aedibus  erat,  he  was  in  the  house 

sub  iugum  exercitum  misit,  he  sent  the  army  under  the  yoke 

sub  arbore  sedit,  he  sat  under  a  tree 

h.  Super  meaning  about,  concerning,  takes  the  ablative ;  in  all  its 
other  senses  {above,  beyofid,  on,  etc.)  it  usually  has  the  accusative. 
c.  Subter,  beneath,  with  the  ablative  is  rare. 

CONJUNCTIONS 

279.  Conjunctions  are  closely  related  to  adverbs  and  are  of 
similar  origin  (cf.  §  268.  a).  They  are  used  to  connect  words, 
phrases,  or  sentences,  and  are  of  two  classes,  coordinating 
and  subordinating. 

a.  Coordinating  conjunctions  connect  expressions  of  equal  rank. 
h.  Subordinating  conjunctions  connect  a  subordinate,  or  dependent, 
clause  with  the  clause  upon  which  it  depends. 

The  uses  of  conjunctions  are  discussed  under  the  head  of  syntax 

(§§597ff-)- 

INTERJECTIONS 

280.  Interjections  are  particles  expressing  feeling,  as  surprise, 
joy,  sorrow,  etc.  Some  of  them  are  mere  natural  exclamations ; 
others  are  derived  from  inflected  parts  of  speech. 

6  lux  Dardaniae,    O  light  of  heu  me  misernm,  a/as /or  poor  me  / 

Dardania  !  heus  Syre,  hello  there,  Syrus  ! 

io  triumphe,  hurrah  I  victory  f  euge,  puer,  well  done,  boy  ! 

a.  Names  of  deities  occur  as  interjections  in  oaths :  as,  hercle,  by 
Hercules ;  pol,  by  Pollux ;  ecastor,  by  Castor. 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS 


145 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS 

281.  Most  Latin  words  are  either  derived  from  or  composed 
of  other  simpler  words,  and,  according  to  their  formation,  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  derivatives  and  compounds. 

a.  Derivatives  are  formed  from  stems  of  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs, 
or  adverbs  by  adding  certain  endings  called  suffixes.' 

I.  Most  suffixes  are  of  pronominal  origin,  and  in  many  cases  their 
definite  meaning  is  not  clear. 

b.  Compounds  are  formed  by  adding  together  two  or  more  stems 
or  complete  words. 

armi-ger,  annor-bearer  (cf.  arma,  arms ;  ger5,  cany) 
omni-potens,  omnipotent  {ci.  omnis,  all  \  -pot^ns,  power/ui) 
septen-decim,  seventeen  (cf .  aeptem,  seven  ;  decern,  ten) 
bene-dicO,  bless  (cf.  bene,  well\  dic5,  speak) 


I.  DERIVATIVES 

A.   Nouns 

282.  Nouns  derived  from  Nouns,   a.  Diminutives  are  formed 
from  nouns  by  means  of  the  suffixes  : 

Masc.  Fem. 

-ulu8  -ula 

-olu8  -ola 

-cuius  -cula 

-ellus  -ella 

-illus  -illA 


Neut. 
-ulum 

-olum  (after  a  vowel) 
-culum 
-ellum 
-ilium 


riv-ulus,  streamlet 
gladi-olua,  small  sword 
fHi-olos,  little  son 
fni-ola,  little  daughter 


riYUS,  brook 
gladius,  sword 
fnius,  son 
fflia,  daughter 


>  It  is  the  stem  of  the  derived  word,  not  the  nominative,  that  is  formed  by 
the  suffix.    For  convenience,  however,  the  nominative  singular  will  be  given. 


146  NOUNS  DERIVED  FROM  NOUNS 

atri-olum,  little  hall  atrium,  hall 

flos-culus,  floweret  fl5s,  flower 

auri-cula,  little  ear  auris,  ear 

munus-culum,  little  gift  munus,  ^.,  gift 

lib-ellus,  little  book  liber,  book 

lap-illus,  pebble  lapis,  stone 

1.  Diminutives  regularly  take  the  gender  of  the  nouns  from  which 
they  are  derived,  and  may  differ  from  them  in  meaning:  as,  avun- 
culus, uncle ^  from  avus,  grandfather-^  osculum,  kiss^  from  6s,  mouth. 

2.  Diminutives  often  express  affection,  pity,  or  contempt. 

deliciolae,  little  pet  deliciae,  pet 

muliercula,  a  poor  (weak)  woman  mulier,  wojnan 

Graeculus,  a  ?niserable  Greek  Graecus,  a  Greek 

b.  Nouns  denoting  place  of  keeping  or  growing  are  formed 
from  nouns  by  means  of  the  neuter  suffixes : 

-arium,  -etum  or  -turn,  -ile 

aer-arium,  treasury  '                      aes,  copper 

oliv-etum,  olive  grove  oliva,  olive 

arbus-tum,  orchard  arbor,  tree 

bov-fle,  ox  stall  bos,  ox 

c.  Nouns  denoting  the  person  employed  about  anything  are 
formed  from  nouns  by  means  of  the  masculine  suffixes : 

-io,  -alius,  -icus 

mul-io,  mule  driver  mulus,  mule 

falc-arius,  scythe  maker  falx,  scythe 

vil-icus,  steward  y\i\si,farfn 

d.  Nouns  denoting  the  place  where  a  business  is  carried  on 

are  formed  from  nouns  denoting  persons  by  adding  the  suffix 

-ina  or  -inum. 

sutr-ina,  f.,  cobble?'' s  shop  siitor,  cobbler 

tonstr-ina,  f.,  barber's  shop  tonsor,  barber 

pistr-inum,  n.,  gristmill  pistor,  miller 


NOUNS  DERIVED  FROM  NOUNS  147 

e.  Nouns  denoting  rafi^  or  office  are  formed  from  nouns  by 
means  of  the  masculine  suffix  -atus. 

magistr-atus,  ii  civil  office  magister,  officer 

consul-atus,  office  of  consul  consul,  consul 

tribun-atus,  office  of  tribune  tribunus,  tribune 

f.  Nouns  denoting  characteristic  or  condition  are  formed 
from  nouns  by  means  of  the  suffixes  : 

-tia,  -tfis,  -tU8,  -tium 

pueri-tia,  f.,  boyhood  puer,  boy 

civi-tas,  F.,  citizenship  civis,  citizen 

vir-tus,  F.,  manhood  vir,  man 

senec-tus.  f.,  old  age  senex,  old  man 

servi-tium.  n.,  senntude  servus,  slave 

consor-tium,  n.,  comradeship  censors,  comrade 

g.  Nouns  known  as  patronymics,  indicating  descent  or  rela- 
tionship, are  formed  from  Greek  proper  names,  or  names  formed 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek,  by  means  of  the  endings  : 

Masc.   -adgs,  -id6s,  -idgs 
Fem.     -Sis,  -ias,  -is 

Anchisi-ades,  son  of  Anchises  Ner-eis,  daughter  of  Nereus 

Tantal-ides,  son  of  Tantalus  Thest-ias,  daughter  of  Thestius 

Pel-ides,  son  of  Peleus  Atlant-is,  daughter  of  Atlas 

283.  Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives.  Abstract  nouns  denot- 
ing quality  or  condition  are  formed  from  adjectives  by  means 
of  the  feminine  suffixes  : 

-ia,  -tas,  -tia,  -ti6s,  -tudS 
audac-ia.  boldness  audax,  bold 

boni-tas.  goodness  bonus,  good 

tristi-tia,  sadness  tristis,  sad 

segni-ties.  slo7i^ness  segnis,  slo7if 

magni-tudd,  greatness  magnus.  great 


148 


NOUNS  DERIVED  FROM  VERBS 


284.  Nouns   derived  from  Verbs,     a.  Nouns   denoting  the 
agejtt  or  doer  are  formed  from  verbs  by  means  of  the  suffixes : 

Masc.    -tor  (-sor) 
Fem.     -trix 


can-tor,  m.,  can-trix,  f.,  singer 
vic-tor,  M.,  vic-trix,  f.,  victor 
ton-sor,  M.,  barber 
peti-tor,  M.,  candidate 


canere,  stng 
vincere,  conquer 
tondere,  shear 
petere,  seek 


I.  A  few  nouns  in  -tor  are  formed  from  nouns. 


via-tor,  traveler 
iani-tor,  doorkeeper 


via,  way 
ianua,  door 


'  b.   Nouns  denoting  action  or  its  result  are  formed  from  verbs 
by  means  of  the  suffixes : 

Masc.    -or,  -tus  (-sus) 

Fem.     -es,  -io,  -monia,  -tio  (-sio),  -tura 


Neut. 


{:; 


us  (gen.  -eris  .or  -oris ) 


tim-or,  fear 

am-or,  love 

audi-tus,  hearifig 

vi-sus,  seeifig 

sen-sus,  feeling 

caed-es,  slaughter 

leg-16,  a  collecting  {levy),  legion 

queri-monia,  complaint 

voca-tio,  calling 

divi-sio,  divisio?i 

scrip-tura,  writing 

gaud-ium,  joy 

certa-men,  contest 

oma-mentum,  ornament 

testi-monium,  testimony 

gen-US,  birth 


Hmere,  fear 

amare,  love 

audire,  hear 

videre,  see 

sentire,  feel 

caedere,  kill 

legere,  collect 

quen,  complain 

vocare,  call 

dividere,  divide 

scribere,  write 

gaudere,  rejoice 

certare,  contend 

ornare.  adorn 

testari,  testify 

gen-,  root  of  gignere,  bear 


ADJECTIVES  DERIVED  FROM  NOUNS  149 

c.  Nouns  denoting  means,  instrument,  or  place  are  formed 
from  verbs  by  means  of  the  neuter  suffixes : 

-bulum,  -culum,  -brum,  -crum,  -trum 

pa-bulum,  fodder  pascere,  feed  . 

sta-bulum,  stall  stare,  stand 

vehi-culum,  wagon  vehere,  carry 

delu-brum,  shrine  deluere,  cleanse 

sepul-crum,  tomb  sepelire,  bury 

claus-tnim  ( *claud-truin),  bar  claudere,  shut 

ara-trum.  pUnc  arare,  plow 

I .  A  few  masculines  and  feminines  of  the  same  formation  occur. 

fa-bula,  tale  filri,  speak 

fa-ber,  smith  facere,  make 

late-bra,  hiding  place  latere,  hide 

mulc-tra,  milk  pail  mulgere,  tnilk 


Ik  Adjectives 

285.  Adjectives  derived  from  Nouns,   a.  Adjectives  meaning 
/nil  of  are  formed  from  'nouns  by  means  of  the  suffixes  : 

-Ssus,  -ISns,  -lentus 

fluctu-^sus,  billowy  fluctus,  billow 

form-osus,  beautiful  forma,  beauty 

pericul-osus,  dangerous  periculum,  danger 

pesti-lens,  pesti-lentus,  pestilent  pestis,  pest 

vino-lentus,  vin-osus,  given  to  drink  vinum,  wine 

h.  Adjectives  m^dunn^  frovUed  with  30[q  formed  from  nouns 
by  means  of  the  suffix  -tus. 

toga-tiu,  wearing  a  toga  toga,  toga 

barba-tus,  bearded  barba,  beard 

turri-tus,  turreted  turris,  tower 

cornu-tos,  homed  comQ,  hont 


ISO  ADJECTIVES  DERIVED  FROM  NOUNS 

c.  Adjectives  denoting  material  are  formed  from  nouns  by 
means  of  the  suffixes  : 

-eus,  -aceus,  -nus,  -neus 

aur-eus,  golden  aunim,  gold 

ros-aceus.  oy  roses  rosa,  rose 

acer-nus,  of  maple  acer,  maple 

ebur-neus,  of  ivory  ebur,  ivory 

d.  Adjectives  meaning  belojiging  to  are  formed  from  nouns 
by  means  of  the  suffixes  : 

-alls,  -ills,  -anus,  -enus,  -inus,  -nus 
-aris,  -arius,  -icus,  -icius,  -ius.  -cus 
-ester,  -ivus,  -ensis,  -timus 

1 .  From  commofi  nouns  : 

mort-alis,  mortal  mors,  death 

vir-ilis,  manly  vir,  man 

mont-anus,  of  the  jnountains  mons,  mountain 

terr-enus,  earthly  terra,  earth 

libert-inus,  of  the  class  offreedmen  libertus,  one's  freedman 

haitei-nus,  fraternal  f rater,  brother 
vulg-aris,  commonplace                            .  vulgus,  co7nmon  people 

legion-arius,  legionary  legi5,  legion 

bell-icus,  of  war  bellum,  war 

patr-icius,  patriciaii  pater,  father 

reg-ius,  royal  rex,  king 

civi-cus,  civic  civis,  citizen 

silv-ester,  woody  silva,  a  wood 

aest-ivus,  of  summer  aestas,  summer 

for-ensis,  of  the  forum  foram.  forum 

fini-timus,  on  the  borders  finis,  end^  limit 

2.  From  proper  nouns : 

From  Names  of  Towns 
R5m-anus.  Roman  Roma.  Rome 

Corinth-ius,  Corinthian  Corinthus,  Corinth 

Cann-ensis,  of  Cannes  Cannae,  Cannes 

Atheni-ensis,  Athenian  .  Athenae,  Athens 


ADJECTIVES  DERIVED  FROM  ADJECTIVES       1 51 

From  Names  of  P&Kschv.'i 

Sull-anus,  oj  Sulla  Sulla,  Sulla 

Mari-anus.  of  Marius  Marius,  Matins 

Caesar-ianus,  0/  Ccesar  Caesar,  Ccrsar 

Plaut-inus,  of  Plautus  Plautus,  Plautus 

Note  i  .    Observe  that  -ianus  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  -anus. 

From  Names  of  Countries 

Gall-icus.  Gallic  Gallia,  Gaul 

German-icus.  German  Germania,  Germany 

Ital-icus,  Italian  Italia,  Italy 

Afr-icus,  African  Africa,  Africa 

Note  2.  From  these  adjectives  are  formed  adjectives  in  -anus  meaning 
stationed  in  or  associated  with  a  country,  but  not  native  to  it. 

Iegi5nes  Gallicanae,  legions  stationed  in  Gaul  (but  not  made  up  of  Gauls) 
Scipio  Africanus,  Scipio  Africanus  (so  called  from  his  victories  in  Africa) 

286.  Adjectives  derived  from  Adjectives.    These  are  mostly 
diminutives  and  are  formed  like  diminutive  nouns  (§  282.  a). 

parv-ulus,  vety  smali'  parvus,  small 

pauper-culus,  rather  poor  ^sm^t,  poor 

vet-ulus.  somewhat  old  vetus,  old 

287.  Adjectives  derived  from  Verbs.    Adjectives  are  derived 
from  verbs  as  follows : 

a.  Adjectives  with  present  participial  meaning  are  formed 
from  verbs  by  means  of  the  suffixes  : 

-bundus,  -cundus 

vita-bundus,  avoiding  vitare,  shun 

treme-bundus,  trembling  tremere,  tremble 

mox\-\i\xvAy3A,  dyings  at  the  point  of  death  mori.  die 

fa-cundus.  eloquent  fliri,  speak 

iri-cundu8.  irascible  cf.  irisci,  be  angry 


152  ADJECTIVES  DERIVED  FROM  VERBS 

b.  Adjectives    expressing    characteristic    or    tendency   are 
formed  from  verbs  by  means  of  the  suffixes : 

-ax,  -ulus 

-f^VigDr^,  pugnacious  ■^XLgtkie.Jight 

aud-ax,  bold  audere,  dare 

cred-ulus,  credulous  credere,  believe 

\>\\)-\x\\xs,  fo?td  of  drink  bibere,  drink 

c.  Adjectives  expressing  a  state  or  settled   condition   are 
formed  from  verbs  by  means  of  the  suffix  -dus. 

timi-dus,  titnid  timeiei  fear 

flori-dus,  blooming  florere,  bloom 

cupi-dus,  desirous  cupere,  desire 

avi-dvLs,  greedy  avere,  long  for 

d.  Adjectives  expressing  capability  (generally  passive)  are 
formed  from  verbs  by  means  of  the  suffixes : 

-ills,  -bills 

frag-ilis,  breakable,  frail  frangere,  break 

fac-ilis,  able  to  be  dojie,  easy  facere,  do 

credi-bilis,  capable  of  belief  credible  credere,  believe 

ama-bilis,  lovable  amare,  love 

288.  Adjectives  derived  from  Adverbs.  Adjectives  are  derived 
from  adverbs  by  means  of  the  suffixes  : 

-emus,  -ternus,  -turnus,  -tinus 

hodi-ernus,  of  to-day  hodie,  to-day 

hes-ternus,  of  yesterday  heri,  yesterday 

diu-turnus,  lasting  diu,  long  time 

cras-tinus,  of  to-morrow  eras,  to-morrow 


DERIVATION  OF  VERBS  1 53 

C.  Verbs 

289.  Verbs  derived  from  Nouns  or  Adjectives.  Verbs  were 
formed  in  Latin  from  almost  every  form  of  noun  stem  and 
adjective  stem.  Most  of  these  verbs  are  of  the  first  conjuga- 
tion ;  but  the  other  conjugations  are  also  represented. 

r  fugS.  -are,  put  to  flight ;  from  fagti,  flight 

1ST  CoNj.  -j  pi6,  -are,  expiate ;  from  plus,  pure 

[exsuld,  -are,  be  in  exile  \  from  exsul,  exile 
J  albeo,  -ere,  de  white ;  from  albus,  white 
\  Glared,  -ere,  shine ;  from  clarus,  bright 
J  xnetuo. -ere, /ear  \  irom  metus, /ear 

"*  \  status,  -ere,  set  up ;  from  status,  position 

Jfinio,  -ire.  bound  \  from  finis,  end 
'  \ custodio,  -ire,  guard;  from  cust5s,  guardian 

290.  Verbs  derived  from  Verbs.  Verbs  derived  from  verbs 
are  of  four  classes. 

a.  Vnceptives  or  Inchoatives^  denoting  the  beginning  of  an  action, 
are  formed  by  adding  -scO  to  the  present  stem.  They  are  of  the  third 
conjugation. 

cale-sc5,  -ere,  grow  ivann ;  from  caleo,  be  warm 
laba-sc5,  -ere,  begin  to  totter ;  from  labo,  totter 

Note.  In  some  of  these  verbs  no  inceptive  meaning  is  present:  as, 
p08c5,  demand \  qui§sc5,  rest\  etc.  Many  are  formed  by  analogy  from 
nouns  and  adjectives. 

b.  Intensives  or  Frequentatives,  denoting  /orcible  or  repeated  action, 
are  formed  from  the  participial  stem  and  end  in  -tO  (-sC),  -itO,  or  -titO. 
They  are  of  the  first  conjugation. 

iac-t6. -are,  hurl\  from  iacio.  throw 
quas-s6,  -are,  shatter ;  from  quatid,  shake 
vol-it6,  -are,  flit ;  from  void,  fly 
dic-tit6,  -are,  keep  saying ;  from  dic6.  say 

Note  i.  Intensives  from  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  end  in  -lt6,  not 
-4t5 :  as,  rogitd,  from  rogS,  -ire,  ask. 

Note  2.  Verbs  of  this  formation  sometimes  show  no  intensive  or 
frequentative  meaning :  as,  canto,  sing. 


154  COMPOUNDS 

I .  Another  form  of  intensives,  of  the  third  conjugation,  ends  in  -esso. 

cap-esso,  -ere,  seise  eagerly  \  from  capio,  take 
fac-esso,  -ere,  do  eartiestly ;  from  facio,  do 

c.  Diminutives,  denoting  feeble  action,  end  in  -illo.  They  are  rare 
and  of  the  first  conjugation. 

cant-illo,  -are,  chirp  ;  from  canto,  sing 
sorb-illo,  -are,  sip ;  from  sorbeo,  dritik 

d.  Desideratives,  denoting  desire,  end  in  -turio  or  -surio.  They  are 
of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  only  two  are  in  common  use : 

par-turio,  -ire,  be  in  labor ;  from  pario,  bear 
e-surio,  -ire,  be  himgiy ;  from  edo,  eat 

II.  COMPOUNDS 

291.  Compound  words  usually  consist  of  two  parts.  The 
second  part  gives  the  essential  meaning,  and  this  is  changed 
or  modified  in  some  way  by  the  first  part. 

armi-ger,  armor-bearer         omni-potens,  omnipotent,  all-powerful  -. , 

292.  Compounds  may  be  formed  in  three  ways : 

a.  By  the  union  of  two  or  more  words  without  change  of  form  or 
meaning. 

Examples  :  pater-familias,  father  of  a  family  ;  senatus-consultum, 
decree  of  the  senate  \  ius-iurandum,  oath;  aquae-ductus,  ^z^// <?<'/// 1:/ ; 
hac-tenus,  thus  far ;  quem-ad-modum,  in  what  way :  bene-f acio, 
benefit. 

Note.  In  this  case  the  words  retain  their  identity  and  are  often  written 
separately.  There  is  no  real  composition,  but  mtrtXy  juxtaposition.  These 
are  sometimes  called  syntactic  compounds. 

h.  By  prefixing  an  indeclinable  particle,  usually  a  preposition. 

Examples  :  per-pauci,  very  few ;  sub-rusticus,  rather  clownish ;  in- 
imicus,  unfriendly;  ad-vena,  stranger:  inter-ficio,  kill\  e-disco, 
learti  by  heart-,   amb-io,  go  about;    se-cerno,  separate. 

Note.  In  this  case  the  meaning  of  the  compound  is  generally  unlike 
that  of  the  component  parts  used  separately. 


COMPOUNDS  155 

c.  By  uniting  two  or  more  stems  and  adding  inflectional  suffixes 
when  necessary. 

ExA.MPLKs:  magnanimus  (magno- +  animus),  high-minded \  agricola 
(agro-  +  cola j,  fanner ;  carnifex  (earn-  +  fex),  executioner ;  princeps 
(primo-  +  ceps),  chief. 

Note.  In  this  case  the  stem  vowel  of  the  first  part  of  the  compound  is 
dropped  before  a  vowel  and  appears  as  i  before  consonants.  Consonant 
stems  usually  add  i. 

293.  Some  compounds  are  derived  from  phrases  so  changed 
as  to  force  them  into  the  inflections  of  nouns. 

pr&-c5nsul,  proconsul  (for  pro  consule,  instead  of  a  consul) 
trium-vir,  //7«/«z//>  (singular,  from  triiun  yirdnun,  of  three  men) 

Indeclinable  Prefixes 

294.  The  indeclinable  prefixes  used  in  forming  compounds 
are  either  separable  or  inseparable.  Separable  prefixes  may 
generally  be  used  separately  as  adverbs  or  prepositions.  In- 
separable prefixes  are  never  so  used. 

Prepositions  in  composition  sometimes  retain  their  original 
adverbial  sense. 

a.  Separable  Prefixes,  used  also  as  prepositions  or  adverbs,  are : 

a.  ab,  abs.  au>ay  a-mitt6,  send  away 

ad,  to^  towards      '  ad-duc6,  lead  to 

ante,  defore  ante-currS,  run  before 

circum,  around  circum-€6.  i^o  around 

com-,  con-  (cum),  together,  forci- 1  J  con-venio.  come  together 

bly,  completely  j  \chTi-^c\o.  do  completely,  finish 

..     ,  ^^    .  ( dJt-smciby  look  down  upon,  despise 

de,  down,  utterly  1:i-f_-^> 

•^  l^de-etruo,  destroy 

I,  ex,  out  e-ici5,  throw  out 

1    /    -.u        1.  V    •  .     .  r  in-e5.  go  in 

in  (with  verbs),  tn,  on,  acamst  "{  .    ^    ,    1  •    ^ 

^  /'      '      '    A  l^in-ferd,  bear  against 

inter,  between,  together (sovnetimts  1     J  intcr-ficiS.  kill 

causing  interruption  or  ruin)      J     \  inter-rumpo.  interrupt 


156 


COMPOUNDS 


intro,  within 

ob,  obs-,  towards^  to  meet^  against 

per,  through^  thoroughly 

post,  after 
prae,  before 
praeter,  beside^  past 

pro,  prod-,  y»r//!,  before 

retro,  back 

sub,  subs-,  under,  somewhat 

super,  over,  upon 
supra,  over 

trans,  tra-,  across 


intro-mitto,  send  within 

op-pugn5,  fight  against 
fper-venio,  come  through,  arrive 
i^per-disc5,  learn  thoroughly 

post-habeo,  regard  after,  esteem  less 

prae-fer5,  bear  before,  prefer 

praeter-eo,  go  past,  pass  by 
fpro-fero,  bear  forth 
\  prod-eo,  go  forth 

retro-cedo,  go  back 
J  sub-eo,  go  under 
\_  sub-tristis,  sofnewhat  sad 

super-fluo,  overflow 

supra-scando,  climb  over 
ftran-silio,  leap  across 
l^tra-do,  betray 


b.  Inseparable  Prefixes,  used  only  in  composition,  are  : 


amb-,  am-,  about,  around 
dis-,^  di-,  apart,  asunder 
in-,  not,  un-  (common  with  adjec-"" 
tives  and  adverbs,  and  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  prepo- 
sition in  usually  compounded  I 
with  verbs)  j 

j^ox-,  forth 

re-,  red-,  back,  again 

se-,  sed-,  apart 
ve-,  not,  without 


amb-io  (§  259.  c),  go  about 
dis-cedo,  go  away   ' 


r  im-memor,  unmindful 
i^in-eptus,  clumsy 


por-tendo,  stretch  forth 
fre-verto,  tujji  back 
\^  red-eo,  go  back 
r  se-duc6,  lead  apart 
l^sed-itio,  revolt  (K\X..  a  going  apart) 

ve-sanus,  not  sane 


On  the  formation  of  adverbs  see  §§  269  ff. 

^  dis-  may  have  a  negative  or  intensive  meaning :  as,  dis-pliceo,  displease ; 
dis-perdo,  niin  utterly. 


PART   III.    SYNTAX 

295.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

THE  SENTENCE 

296.  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  complete 
thought.    Sentences  are  of  four  kinds : 

1.  Declarative  Sentences  make  a  statement. 

canis  currit,  the  dog  runs 

2.  Interrogative  Sentences  ask  a  question. 

canisne  currit,  does  the  dog  run  f 

3.  Exclamatory   Sentences   have   the   force   of   an   ex- 
clamation. 

quam  celeriter  currit  canis,  how  fast  the  dog  runs  ! 

4.  Imperative  Sentences  express  a  command,  exhortation, 
or  entreaty. 

desilite,  commilitSnes,  y«/«/)  down,  comrades 

eamus,  let  us  go 

currat  canis,  let  the  dog  run 

SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE 

297.  Every  sentence  consists  of  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 
The  Subject  is  the  person  or  thing  about  which  something 

is  said. 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject. 

Thus,  in  equitfis  ad  Caesarem  vgngrunt,  the  cavalry  came  to  Ccesar^ 
equitCs  is  the  subject,  and  ad  Caesarem  v6n€runt  is  the  predicate. 

«57 


158  THE  SENTENCE 

a.  The  subject  may  be  implied  in  the  personal  ending  of  the  verb, 
and  thus  a  sentence  may  consist  of  a  single  word. 

sede-mus,  we  are  sitting  curri-tis,  you  are  running 

credu-nt,  they  believe  ris-isti,  you  laughed 

b.  The  subject  may  be  some  word  or  group  of  words  used  as 
a  noun. 

haec  perficere  est  facile,  to  accomplish  these  things  is  easy 
accidit  ut  plena  luna  esset^  it  happened  that  the  moo?i  was  full 


SIMPLE,  COMPOUND,  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES 

298.  A  Simple  Sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one 

predicate. 

Caesar  Gall5s  vicit,  Ccesar  conquered  the  Gauls 

299.  A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent simple  sentences  related  in  thought.  Each  member  of 
a  compound  sentence  is  called  a  clause,  and  the  clauses  are 
said  to  be  coordinate,  that  is,  ''of  equal  rank,"  and  are  often 
joined  by  coordinating  conjunctions  (§  279.  a). 

Caesar  Gallos  vicit  et  Roman!  gaudebant,  Ccesar  cofiquered  the  Gauls 
and  the  Romans  rejoiced 

veni,  vidi,  vici,  /  cajne,  I  saw,  I  congicered.  [Observe  that  this  com- 
pound sentence  consists  of  three  independent  coordinate  clauses, 
.  related  in  thought  but  not  joined  by  conjunctions.] 

300.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  an  independent  simple 
sentence,  known  as  the  principal  or  main  clause,  modified  by 
one  or  more  dependent  sentences,  known  as  the  subordinate 
or  dependent  clauses. 

Romani  gavisl  sunt  quod  Caesar  Gallos  vicerat,  the  Romans  rejoiced 
because  Ccesar  had  conquered  the  Gauls 

Here  the  complex  sentence  consists  of  the  principal  or  main  clause 
Romani  gavisi  sunt,  and  the  subordinate  or  dependent  clause  quod 
Caesar  Gallos  vicerat. 


PHRASES  AND  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES         159 

Note.  A  complex  sentence  often  contains  more  than  one  subordinate 
clause,  and  a  subordinate  clause  may  itself  be  modified  by  other  subordinate 
clauses. 

Labieno  imperavit  ut  pontem  interscinderet  et  equitatum  praemitteret, 
he  commanded  Labieutis  to  destroy  the  bridi^e  and  send  /or~u>ard  the 
cavalry.  [Two  subordinate  clauses  modifying  the  principal  clause 
Labieno  imperavit.] 
Labiend  imperavit  ut  interscinderet  pontem  qui  flOmen  iungeret,  he 
commanded  Labieuns  to  destroy  the  bridge  'which  spanned  the  river. 
[Two  subordinate  clauses,  of  which  qui  .  .  .  iungeret  is  subordinate 
to  ut  .  .  .  pontem,  which  is  itself  subordinate  to  the  principal  clause 
Labieno  imperavit.] 


PHRASES  AND  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

301.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  connected  words  not  containing 
a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

302.  A  phrase  is  often  equivalent  to  a  part  of  speech, 
especially  to  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence  vir  fuit  summa  nohilitate,  he  was  a  man  of 
the  highest  nobility,  the  words  summa  nobilitate,  of  the  highest  nobility^ 
arc  equivalent  to  the  adjective  nobilis,  noble  (or  nobilissimus,  very 
noble) y  and  are  called  an  adjective  phrase. 

Again,  in  the  sentence  magna  celeritdte  vgnit,  he  came  with  great 
speedy  the  words  magna  celeritate,  with  great  speed,  are  equivalent  to 
the  adverb  celeriter,  quickly  (or  celerrimg,  very  quickly),  and  are  called 
an  adverbial  phrase. 

303.  A  Subordinate  Clause  always  has  a  finite  verb  or  an 
infinitive  in  the  predicate,  and  takes  the  place  of  some  part  of 
speech  in  its  relation  to  the  principal  clause. 

304.  There  are  three  kinds  of  subordinate  clauses  :  noun  (or 
substantive)  clauses,  adjective  clauses,  and  adverbial  clauses. 

a.  A  noun  (or  substantive)  clause  takes  the  place  of  a  noun. 

fieri  potest  ut  tu  recti  sentias,  it  is  possible  that  you  think  rightly. 
[Merc  ut  tu  recte  sentias  is  a  noun  clause,  the  subject  of  potest.] 


i6o  PREDICATE  NOUNS 

b.  An  adjective  clause  defines  or  modifies  some  noun  or  pronoun 
and  is  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb. 

Considius,  qui  ret  miUtdris  peritissimus  habebatur,  cum  exploratoribus 
praemittitur,  Considius,  who  was  co7isidered  very  skilful  in 
warfare,  is  sent  i7i  adva?ice  with  scouts.  [Here  the  clause  qui .  .  . 
habebatur  is  equivalent  to  an  adjective  modifying  Considius.] 

agri  ubi  hodie  est  haec  urbs,  the  fields  where  to-day  this  city  stands 

c.  An  adverbial  clause  expresses  some  adverbial  relation,  such  as 
purpose,  result,  time,  or  cause. 

veniunt  ut  pdcem  petant,  they  co7ne  to  seek  peace.  [The  adverbial 
clause  ut  .  .  ;  petant  expresses  purpose.] 

Note.    A  subordinate  clause  is  incapable,  by  itself,  of  expressing  a 
complete  meaning. 


SYNTAX   OF  NOUNS 
PREDICATE  NOUNS 

305.  A  predicate  noun  is  a  noun  in  the  predicate  describing 
or  defining  the  subject.  It  is  connected  with  the  subject  by  a 
form  of  sum  or  by  an  intransitive  or  passive  verb. 

a.  The  verb  sum  thus  used  as  a  connective  is  called  the  copula. 
When  an  intransitive  or  passive  verb  is  used  in  the  same  way,  it  is 
called  a  copulative  verb. 

Caesar  erat  c5nsul,  CcEsar  was  consul 

ego  patrSnus  exstiti,  I  have  come  forward  as  an  advocate 

Caesar  cdnsul  credtus  est,  Ccesar  was  elected  consul 

306.  A  predicate  noun  agrees  in  case  with  the  subject. 

Ariovistus  erat  rex,  Ariovistus  was  king 

Cicero  drdtor  clarissimus  habitus  est,  Cicero  was  regarded  as  a  most 

distinguished  orator 
somnus  est  imdgd  mortis,  sleep  is  the  linage  of  death 


APPOSITIVES  i6i 

307.  A  predicate  noun  referring  to  two  or  more  singular  nouns  is 
in  the  plural. 

Claudius  et  Servilius  consulis  facti  sunt,  Claudius  and  Servilius  were 

elected  consuls 

308.  When  a  predicate  noun  has  different  forms  for  different 
genders,  it  agrees  with  the  subject  in  gender  as  well  as  in  case. 

usus  magister  est,  experience  is  an  instructor 
historia  est  magistra,  history  is  an  instructress 

309.  In  addition  to  sum  the  verbs  most  commonly  used  to 
connect  a  predicate  noun  with  the  subject  are : 

a.  Intransitive  verbs  of  becoming,  appearing,  remaining,  etc. :  as, 
6vad6,  appareO,  maneO. 

b.  The  passive  of  verbs  of  making,  calling,  choosing,  regarding, 
etc. :  as,  creor,  appellor,  dgligor,  habeor,  iudicor, 

homo  magnus  evaserat,  he  had  become  a  great  man 

pater  a  senatu  populi  R5mani  amicus  appellatus  erat,  his  father  had 

been  called  friend  by  the  senate  of  the  Roman  people 
duces  ii  deliguntur,  those  (men)  are  chosen  as  leaders 

310.  Sum  in  the  sense  of  exist  is  not  a  copula,  but  makes  a  com- 
plete predicate  without  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective.  It  is  then 
called  the  substantive  verb. 

sunt  viri  fortes,  there  are  (exist)  brave  men 

est  classis  in  portu,  there  is  a  fleet  in  the  harbor 


APPOSITIVES 

311.  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  standing  in 
the  same  part  of  the  sentence  with  the  noun  described,  is 
called  an  appositive,  and  is  said  to  be  in  apposition. 

Cassius  consul  occisus  est,  Cassius,  the  consul^  was  killed 
persuident    Rauracis  flnitimls,    they   persuade    the    Rauraci,    their 

neighbors 


l62  APPOSITIVES 

312.  An  appositive  agrees  in  case  with  the  noun  which 
it  describes. 

oppidum  Remorum  nomine  Bibrax  aberat  milia  passuum  octo,  a  town 
of  the  Renii,  Bibrax  by  name,  was  eight  7niles  away.  [Here  the 
appositive  belongs  to  the  subject. '\ 

Caesar  T.  Labienum  legatum  misit,  Ccesar  sent  Titus  Labienus,  the 
lieutenant.    [Here  both  nouns  are  in  \h^ predicate.'] 

a.  An  appositive  generally  agrees  with  its  noun  in  gender  and 
number  when  it  can. 

sequuntur  naturam  optimam  ducem,  they  follow  ftature,  the  best  guide. 

[Observe  that  ducem  is  here />;///>/ /V/^.] 
omnium  doctrinarum  myenfnces  Athenae,  Athens,  the  discoverer  of  all 

learning.    [Observe  that  inventrices  \^  plural  zxiA  feminine. '\ 

b.  Words  expressing  parts  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  noun 
denoting  the  whole.  This  is  called  partitive  apposition,  and  is  espe- 
cially common  with  quisque,  uterque,  alius  .  . .  alius,  and  alter  . . .  alter. 

Hannibal  transfugas  in  suam  quemque  civitatem  dimisit,  Hannibal  sent 

the  deserters  each  to  his  own  state 
duo  consules  eius  anni  alter  ferro,  alter  morbo  periit,  the  two  consuls 

of  that  year  perished,  the  one  by  the  sword,  the  other  by  disease 

Note.  For  the  explanatory  genitive  used  instead  of  an  appositive  see 
§335- 

313.  Urbs  or  oppidum  in  apposition  with  the  locative  case  (§  74.  a) 
of  the  name  of  a  town  is  put  in  the  ablative,  with  or  without  the 
preposition  in. 

Antiochiae,  celebri  quondam  urbe,  at  Antioch,  once  afatnous  city 
Albae  constiterunt,  in  urbe  munita,  they  halted  at  Alba,  a  fortified 
town 

314.  A  clause  or  an  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  appositive. 

illud  etiam  restiterat,  ut  te  in  ius  educerent,  this  too  remained —  that 

they  should  drag  you  i?ito  court 
stultitia  haec  sit,  me  tibi  meant  operam  pollicitdri,  this  would  be  folly,  for 

me  to  offer  you  my  assistance 


NOMINATIVE  CASE  163 

315.  An  appositive  is  frequently  equivalent  to  a  relative  clause,  or 
to  a  clause  of  time  or  cause. .  Especially  common  in  this  construction 
arc  official  titles  and  words  like  adul6sc6ns,  puer,  senex,  etc.,  express- 
ing time  of  life. 

r  luho      1 
Cicerd  consul  Catillnam  ex  urbe  eiecit,  Cicero^  \  since  he  \  was  consul^ 

[  when  he  J 
expelled  Catiline  from  the  city 
Cats  senex  historiam  scribere  instituit,  Cato  began  to  write  history 
when  he  unis  an  old  man 


THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE 

316.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 
The  finite  verb  includes  all  forms  of  the  indicative,  sub- 
junctive, and  imperative. 

Caesar  Rhenum  transire  decreverat,  Ctrsar  had  determined  to  cross  the 
Rhine 

a.  The  subject  is  usually  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  but  it  may  be  a 
clause  or  an  infinitive. 

accidit  ut  esset  lUna  plena,  it  happened  that  it  was  full  moon.    [The 

subject  is  the  clause  ut  esset  etc.] 
do^e  malum  est,  to  suffer  pain  is  an  evil.    [The  subject  is  the 

infinitive  dolere.] 

317.  Impersonal  verbs  and  the  passive  of  many  intransitive  verbs 
may  be  used  without  any  subject  expressed. 

pluit.  //  rains 

sic  Jtur  ad  astra,  thus  men  rise  to  the  stars  (itur,  lit.  there  is  going) 

acriter  pugnatum  est,   there  was  sharp  fighting  (lit.  //  was  fought 

sharply) 

318.  A    personal   pronoun,    unless   it    is   emphatic,   is   regularly 
omitted  as  subject,  being  implied  in  the  f>ersonal  ending  of  the  verb. 

significamus  quid  sentiamus,  we  show  what  we  think 


1 64  VOCATIVE  CASE 

319.  The  nominative  may  be  used  in  exclamations,  but  the  accusa- 
tive is  more  common  (cf.  §  436). 

en  dextra  fidesque,  lo,  the  faith  and  plighted  word ! 
Note.    For  the  nominative  used  instead  of  the  vocative  see  §  322. 

320.  The  nominative  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  histori- 
cal infinitive  (§  844). 

Caesar  Haeduos  frumentum  flagitare,  Ccesar  demanded  grain  from  the 
Hcedui 

THE  VOCATIVE  CASE 

321.  The  vocative  is  the  case  of  direct  address. 

desilite,  commJlitones,  leap  down^  co7nrades 

egredere  ex  urbe,  Catilina,  depart  from  the  city,  Catilifie 

322.  The  nominative  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  vocative, 
audi  tu,  populus  Albanus,  hear  thou,  people  of  Alba 

323.  In  poetry  the  nominative  of  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used 
with  a  vocative. 

nate,  mea  magna  potentia  solus,  my  son,  thou  alone  my  great  power 
proice.tela,  sanguis  mens,  cast  away  thy  weapons,  son  of  mine 

THE  GENITIVE  CASE 

324.  The  genitive  is  used  with  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs, 
and  rarely  with  adverbs.^ 

1  The  genitive  case  was  used  with  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  from  the 
earliest  period  of  the  language  to  express  a  great  variety  of  ideas.  With 
nouns  and  adjectives  it  served  to  define  or  complete  the  meaning  in  any  way 
suggested  by  the  context,  and  it  is  this  adnominal  use  that  distinguishes  the 
genitive  from  the  other  cases.  Its  use  with  verbs  is  still  more  difficult  of  exact 
definition.  There  being,  then,  no  single  fundamental  value  attached  to  the 
genitive,  it  follows  that  its  constructions  are  extremely  hard  to  classify.  The 
categories  given  below  include  most  of  its  recognized  uses,  and  serve  as  a 
grammatical  convenience ;  but  many  expressions  remain  which  do  not  logi- 
cally belong  under  any  recognized  category. 


GENITIVE  CASE  165 

325.  The  relation  of, the  genitive  to  the  word  that  it  limits  is 
generally  expressed  in  English  by  the  preposition  of  or  by  the  pos- 
sessive case;  but  other  translations  must  often  be  used. 

libri  Ckerdnis,  the  books  of  Cicero  or  Cicero's  books 

talentum  ai/rf,  a  talent  of  gold 

vir  summae  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  greatest  courage 

yacati5  laboris,  a  respite  from  toil 

petitio  consuldtus,  candidacy  for  the  consulship 

regnum  cwitatis,  sovereignty  over  the  state 

peritus  rel  mJlitaris,  skilful  in  warfare 

insuetus  laboris,  unused  to  toil 

capitis  damnatus,  condemned  on  a  capital  charge 

caritas  tui,  affection  for  you 

326.  Most  of  the  uses  of  the  genitive  may  be  classified  as 
either  subjective  or  objective. 

I.  The  Subjective  Genitive  is  generally  used  with-  nouns, 
and  denotes  the  subject  of  the  action  or  feeling  expressed  by  the 
modified  word,  or  the  author,  cause,  or  possessor  of  something. 

amor  patris,  the  father's  love  orationes  Ciceronis,  Cicero's  orations 

iter  exercitUs,  the  army's  march       domus  Caesaris,  Ccpsar's  house 

II.  The  Objective  Genitive  is  used  with  certain  kinds  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  and  denotes  the  object  toward  which 
the  action  or  feeling  expressed  by  the  modified  word  is  directed. 

amor  patriae,  love  of  country 

fames  auri,  greed  for  gold 

metus  deorum,  the  fear  of  the  gods 

avidus  laudis.  desirous  of  praise 

dux  memor  vestfi,  a  leader  mindful  of  you 

vivorum  memini,  /  remember  the  living 

NoTi:.  When  a  genitive  modifies  a  noun  denoting  action  or  feeling, 
the  context  will  generally  show  whether  the  genitive  is  subjective  or  objec- 
tive. For  example,  if  amor  patris,  lo^>e  of  a  father,  means  that  the  father 
loves,  the  genitive  is  subjective;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  meaning  in- 
tended is  that  the  father  is  the  object  of  some  one's  love,  the  genitive 
is  objective. 


i66  POSSESSIVE  GENITIVE 

I.  The  Subjective  Genitive 

327.  The  subjective  genitive  includes  the  following  con- 
structions : 

1.  Possessive  genitive  (§  328). 

2.  Explanatory  genitive  (§  335). 

3.  Genitive  of  the  charge  (§336). 

4.  Genitive  of  description  (§  338). 

5.  Genitive  of  nieasure  (§  340). 

6.  Genitive  of  indefinite  value  (§  341). 

7.  Genitive  of  the  whole,  or  partitive  genitive  (§  342). 

8.  Genitive  of  material  (§348). 

9.  Genitive  with  verbs  and  adjectives  of  plenty  or  want 

(§  349). 

10.  .Genitive  with  adjectives  denoting  similarity  or  connection 
and  their  opposites  (§  351). 

11.  Genitive  with  refert  and  interest  (§  352). 

328.  Possessive  Genitive.  The  possessive  genitive  denotes 
the  person  or  thing  to  which  something  belongs  or  is  in  some 
way  related. 

libri  Ciceronis,  Cicero's  books 
ilnowsf/ exercitus,  the  army  of  Ariovistus 
Alexandri  equus,  Alexa7tder''s  horse 
pericula  proeli,  the  datigers  of  the  battle 

Note.    Here  belongs  the  genitive  of  the  person  acting  ox  feeling. 

itinera  Caesaris,  Ccesar's  marches 
timor  consults,  the  consiifs  fear 

329.  A  possessive  adjective  is  regularly  used  instead  of  the  pos- 
sessive genitive  of  a  personal  or  reflexive  pronoun  and  may  be  used 
for  the  possessive  genitive  of  a  noun. 

liber  mei/s,  my  book ;  not  liber  mei 

filius  suus,  his  son ;  not  filius  sui 

municeps  Amerinus,  a  citizen  of  the  free  toivn  Ameria 


POSSESSIVE  GENITIVE  167 

330.  The  possessive  genitive  often  stands  in  the  predicate,  espe- 
cially after  the  verb  sum. 

In  this  construction  the  genitive  may  express  ownership  or  various 
kindred  ideas  :  as,  the  part  of,  duty  of,  characteristic  of. 

haec  domus  est  patris  mei,  this  house  is  my  father's 
summa  laus  Bruti  est,  the  highest  praise  belongs  to  Brutus 
timidi  est  optare  necem,  /*/  is  the  coward's  part  to  wish  for  death 
sapientis  est  pauca  loqui,  it  is  characteristic  of  a  wise  man  to  say  little 

331.  The  genitive  with  causa,  gratia,*  and  instar  is  possessive  in 
character. 

patriae  causa,  y^r  the  sake  of  the  fatherland 
amici  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  my  friend 

equus  instar  mantis,  a  horse  as  big  as  a  mountain  (lit.  a  horse  the 
likeness  of  a  mountain) 

Note.  With  causa  and  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  the  genitive  always 
precedes. 

332".  Here  belong  the  genitives  expressing  the  relation  con- 
nected 7c<ith.  « 

difficultates    btlti  gerendi,    the   difficulties  of  (i.e.    connected    with) 
waging  the  war 

333.  J'he  noun  on  which  the  genitive  depends  is  sometimes 
omitted  when  it  may  be  readily  supplied. 

Flaccus  Claudi,  Flaccus  (the  slave)  of  Claudius 
Hectoris  Andromache,  Andromache  (the  wife)  of  Hector 
ventum  est  ad  Vestae,  we  came  to  Vesta's  (temple) 

Note.  Observe  the  similar  English  usage  in  such  expressions  as 
St.  fohn's  (church),  St.  Paul's  (school),    Wanamaker's  (store). 

334.  The  English  use  of  that  in  such  sentences  as  "  the  Hcct 
of  the  Britons  is  larger  than  that  of  the  Gauls  "  has  no  parallel  in 

^  That  the  genitive  preceding  causX  and  grStiA  is  subjective  and  possessive 
is  made  clear  by  observing  that  patriae  causS  is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  the 
English  "  in  our  country's  cause,"  and  amlci  grAtii  to  "  bccau.<se  of  the  favor 
which  my  friend  inspires." 


l68  GENITIVE  OF  DESCRIPTION 

Latin.   In  Latin  the  noun  is  repeated,  or  else  it  is  dropped,  leaving 
the  genitive  without  a  governing  word. 

classis  Britannorum  maior  est  quam  classis  Gallorum  or  classis  Bri- 
tannonim  maior  est  quam  Gallorum,  t/ie  fleet  of  the  Britons  is 
larger  than  that  of  the  Gauls 

335.  Explanatory  Genitive.  The  genitive  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  an  appositive  (§  3 1 1),  to  explain  or  define  the  meaning 
of  a  noun. 

oppidum  Gendvae^  the  tow?!  of  Geneva  (for  oppidum  Genava) 
vox  voluptdtis,  the  wo^'d  (of)  pleasure  (for  vox  voluptas) 

336.  Genitive  of  the  Charge.  Verbs  of  accusing,  condemn- 
ing, and  acqidtting  take  the  genitive  of  the  charge.^ 

arguit  me  furtlj  he  accuses  me  of  theft 

pecuniae  publicae  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  for  embezzlement 

improbitdtis  absolutus  est,  he  was  acquitted  of  dishonesty 

a.  The  ablative  with  de  is  often  used  instead  of  the  genitive. 
de  ambitu  condemnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  for  bribery 

337.  The  penalty  is  regularly  expressed  by  the  ablative  (§  473), 
though  the  genitives  capitis,  pecuniae,  and  a  few  others  occur. 

tertia  parte  agri  damnati  sunt,  they  were  condemned  (to  pay)  a  third 

part  of  their  lafid 
capitis  damnatus,  condemned  to  death 
pecuniae  damnatus,  cofidemned  (to  pay)  fnoney 
long!  laboris  damnatus,  condemned  to  long  labor 

338.  Genitive  of  Description.  The  genitive  of  a  noun  virith  an 
adjective  in  agreement  is  often  used  to  describe  a  person  or  thing. 

vir  magnae  sapientiae,  a  man  of  great  wisdom 
eius  modi  naves,  ships  of  that  sort 
huius  generis  domus,  a  house  of  this  kind 
puer  egregiae  indolis,  a  boy  of  remarkable  ability 

1  This  genitive  is  often  explained  as  depending  on  crimine  [charge),  or  a 
similar  word,  understood.  Sometimes  crimine  is  expressed,  but  not  in  early 
Latin,  a  fact  which  renders  this  explanation  doubtful. 


GENITIVE  OF  THE  WHOLE  169 

a.  The  genitive  of  description  frequently  stands  in  the  predicate. 

tantae  molts  erat  Rdmanam  condere  genttm,  (of)  sucA  a  task  it  was  to 
found  the  Roman  nation 

Note.  The  ablative  is  used  to  describe  a  quality  more  frequently 
than  the  genitive  (see  §  466).  In  general  the  genitive  is  used  rather 
of  permanent  and  essential,  the  ablative  of  incidental  and  external, 
characteristics. 

339.  Included  under  the  genitive  of  description  are  the 
genitive  of  measure  and  the  genitive  of  indefinite  value. 

340.  Genitive  of  Measure.  The  genitive  with  a  numeral  is  used 
to  define  measures  of  length,  depth,  etc. 

fossa  trium.  pedum,  a  trench  of  three  feet  (in  depth) 
puer  decern  annorum,  a  boy  of  ten  years 
iter  unius  diet,  a  march  of  one  day 

341.  Genitive  of  Indefinite  Value.  The  genitive  of  a  few  nouns 
and  adjectives  denotes  indefinite  value. 

non  flocd  faci5,  /  don''t  care  a  straw 
istoc  nihili  pendo.  /  care  nothing  for  it 
tantJ  Gracchum  fecit,  he  valued  Gracchus  so  highly 
auctdritas  eius  in  his  regidnibus  magni  habebatur,  his  influence  in 
these  districts  was  considered  of  great  7ueight 

Note.  Among  such  genitives  are  the  nouns  flocci,  a  straw  (lit.  a  bit  of 
wool)\  nauci,  a  nutshell \  xi\]x\\\,  .nothing;  and  the  adjectives  magni, 
pluris,  pliirimi,  paryi,  minoris,  minimi,  tanti,  and  quanti. 

a.  The  genitives  tanti,  quanti,  pliiris,  and  minOris  are  used  with 
verbs  of  buying  and  selling  to  denote  indefinite  price. 

quanti  emptum  est,  at  what  price  was  it  bought  f 
Note.    Definite  price  is  expressed  by  the  ablative.   See  §  470. 

342.  Genitive  of  the  Whole  (Partitive  Genitive).  The  geni- 
tive is  used  to  denote  the  whole  of  which  a  part  is  taken. 


170  GENITIVE  OF  THE  WHOLE 

This  is  often  called  the  partitive  genitive.  The  word  denoting  ih^part 
may  be  a  noun,  pronoun,  adjective  used  substantively,  or  an  adverb. 

magna  pars  navium,  a  great  part  of  the  ships 

nemo  eorum,  not  one  of  them 

decern  milia  passuum,  ten  thousand  paces  (lit.  ten  thousands  of  paces) 

quis  mortdlium,  who  of  mortals  ? 

aliquid  &om,  something  good  {oi  good) 

quis  vestrum,  who  of  you  ? 

quid  novi,  what  ?iews  (of  new)  ? 

omnium   ordtorum  praestantissimus,   the   7/wst   distinguished  of  all 

07'ators 
multi  civium,  viajiy  of  the  citizens 
minox  frdtrum^  the  you?iger  of  the  brothers 
multum  pecuniae,  much  money 
60  miseridrum,  to  that  (pitch)  of  misery 

Note.  The  partitive  genitive  is  not  used  with  words  modified  by 
prepositions  nor  with  cases  other  than  the  nominative  and  accusative. " 

ad  tantum  studium,  to  suck  zeal;  not  ad  tantum  studi 
nimia  voluptdte,  -uuth  excessive  pleasure;  not  nimia  voluptatis 

343.  Certain  adverbs  are  used  with  the  genitive  of  the  whole  like 
substantives.  These  are  especially  nimis,  too  ??iuch  ;  parum,  too  little ; 
satis,  enough  ;  and  adverbs  of  place. 

nimis  lucis,  too  much  light  (of  light) 

parum  sapientiae,  too  little  wisdom  (of  wisdom) 

satis  pecuniae,  enough  money  (of  money) 

ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in  the  world  (where  of  nations)  are  we  ? 

nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  on  earth  (of  nations) 

Note.  An  extension  of  this  usage,  with  complete  loss  of  the  partitive 
idea,  is  seen  in  the  expressions  pridie  eius  diei,  on  the  day  before  that  day ; 
and  postridie  eius  diei,  on  the  day  after  that  day. 

344.  The  ablative  v^ith  e,  ex,  or  de  is  often  used  instead  of 
the  genitive  of  the  whole,  regularly  with  cardinal  numerals 
(except  milia)  and  usually  with  quidam. 

iinus  ex  trihunis,  one  of  the  tribunes 
quidam  ex  militihus^  certain  of  the  soldiers 


GENITIVE  OF  PLENTY  OR  WANT  171 

345.  Words  including  the  whole  are  not  used  with  the  partitive 
genitive,  but  with  a  case  in  agreement. 

tota  iirfts,  the  whole  of  the  city 

nos  omnes,  all  a/ us  (we  all);  not  omnes  nostrum 

quot  sunt  hastes,  hoiv  many  of  the  enemy  are  there  ? 

Note.  The  explanation  of  this  is  obvious  from  §  342.  If  the  whole  is 
taken,  no  partitive  idea  is  logical. 

346.  The  English  idiom  uses  of  in  certain  common  phrases  (like 
the  middle  of,  the  top  of,  the  end  of  etc.)  in  which  the  Latin  has  an 
adjective  in  agreement. 

media  wrhs,  the  middle  of  the  city 
summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  mountain 
extrema  aestas,  the  end  of  the  summer 

347.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  rarely  found  in  the 
partitive  genitive,  but  agree  directly  with  the  nouns  they  modify. 

nihil  grave,  nothing  serious ;  not  nihil  gravis 
quid  utile,  luhat  advantage :  not  quid  utilis 

348.  Genitive  of  Material.  The  genitive  may  denote  the 
material  of  which  a  thing  consists  or  is  made. 

talentum  aufi.  a  talent  of  gold 
flumina  lactis,  rivers  of  milk 
navis  aeris,  a  ship  of  bronze 

Note.  The  genitive  of  material  is  an  extension  of  the  genitive  of 
the  whole. 

a.  Material  is  often  expressed  by  the  ablative  with  ex.   See  §  452. 

349.  Genitive  of  Plenty  or  Want.  Adjectives  and  verbs  of 
plenty  or  want  sometimes  govern  the  genitive. 

plenua  fidei,  full  of  loyalty 

virtutis  expers,  de7*oid  of  virtue 

convivium  vJcindrum  compleS,  /fll  up  the  banquet  with  wv  iir!"Jihors 

implentur  veteris  Bacchl  they  take  their  fill  of  old  wine 

auxili  tui  indigea,  /  have  need  of  your  aid 

Note.   This  construction  is  an  extension  of  the  genitive  of  the  whole. 


1/2       GENITIVE  WITH  /^£F£J^T  AND  INTEREST 

350.  Plenty  or  want  is  more  usually  denoted  by  the  ablative 
(see  §  469.  d).  Words  preferring  the  genitive  are  the  adjectives 
expers,  inops,  egenus,  and  plenus,  and  the  verb  indigeo. 

351.  Genitive  with  Adjectives  of  Similarity  or  Connection. 

Certain  adjectives  denoting  similarity  or  connection  and  their 
opposites  may  take  the  genitive. 

Among  these  are  similis,  dissimilis,  par,  dispar,  contrarius,  adfinis, 
proprius,  communis, 

Crassus  Cyri  et  Alexandrt  similis  esse  voluit,  Crassus  wished  to  be  like 

Cyrus  and  Alexa7tder 
id  vitium  non  proprium  senectutis  est,  that  fault  is  not  characteristic 

of  old  age 
haec  quaestio  communis  est  omnium  philosophorum,  this  question  is 

common  to  all  philosophers 

Note.  These  adjectives  are  often  found  with  other  constructions,  espe- 
cially with  the  dative  (cf.  §  397) ;  but  the  genitive  is  more  usual  with  pro- 
prius. In  early  Latin  similis  was  construed  with  the  genitive  only,  but 
later  the  dative  became  more  and  more  frequent  and  in  post-Augustan 
Latin  displaced  the  genitive  almost  entirely. 

352.  Genitive  with  refert  and  interest  With  the  impersonal 
verbs  refert  and  interest  the  person  or  thing  interested  is  denoted 
by  the  genitive. ^ 

But  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns  (mei, 
.  tui,  sui,  etc.),  the  ablative  singular  feminine  of  the  correspond- 
ing possessive  (mea,  tua,  sua,  etc.)  is  used.^ 

Caesaris  interest,  //  is  to  Coesar's  interest 

interest  regis  tueri  subditos,  //  is  of  interest  to  a  king  to  protect  his 

subjects 
mea  refert,  //  is  to  my  interest^  it  matters  to  7ne  \ 

nostra  interest,  it  is  to  our  interest,  it  matters  to  us 

^  In  early  Latin  refert  is  more  frequent  than  interest,  but  is  rare  at  all 
periods  with  the  genitive  of  the  person. 

2  No  wholly  satisfactory  solution  of  the  origin  of  this  construction  has 
been  found. 


OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE  173 

a.  The  subject  of  the  interest  is  denoted  by  a  neuter  pronoun,  an 
infinitive,  or  a  substantive  clause. 

hoc  Caesaris  interest,  this  is  to  Casar's  interest 

vincere  Gallos  Caesaris  interest,  to  conquer  the  Gauls  is  to  Cctsar's 

interest 
rei  publicae  interest  ut  Caesar  sahms  sit,  Co'sar's  safety  is  to  the  interest 

of  the  state 

b.  The  degree  of  the  interest  is  denoted  by  a  genitive  of  indefinite 
value,  by  an  adverb,  or  by  the  neuter  accusative  of  an  adjective  used 
adverbially. 

maant^  (great/y         ^ 

maxime  >- Caesaris  interest,  //  is<  exceedingly  \to  Casar's  interest 
multum]  [much  J 

c.  The  object  to  be  gained  by  securing  the  subject  of  the  interest  is 
expressed  by  the  accusative  with  ad. 

ad  gloriam  vincere  Gall5s  Caesaris  interest,  to  conquer  the  Gauls  is  of 

interest  to  Casarfor  (the  sake  of  \>i\^)famc 
fortiter  pugnare  mea  et  omnium  civium  ad  saWtem  patriae  magnl  refert, 

to  fight  bravely  is  of  great  importance  to  me  and  to  all  citizens 

for  the  safety  of  our  country 

Note.  Very  rarely  the  person  interested  is  expressed  by  ad  and  the 
accusative,  or  (with  refert)  by  the  dative. 

quid  id  ad  me  refert,  'what  difference  does  that  make  to  me  ? 
quid  referat  intra  natiirae  finis  vivenfi,  what  difference  does  it  make  to 
one  living  within  the  bounds  of  nature? 

II.  The  Objective  Genitive 

353.  The  objective  genitive  includes  the  following  con- 
structions : 

1.  The  genitive  with  nouns  expressing  action  or  feeling  (§  354). 

2.  The  genitive  of  application  (§  356). 

3.  The  genitive  with  adjectives  expressing  action  or  feeling 

(§357). 

4.  The  genitive  with  certain  verbs  (§  358). 


174  GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES 

354.  Genitive  with  Nouns  expressing  Action  or  Feeling. 
The  objective  genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  object  of  an  action 
or  feeling  expressed  by  a  noun. 

caritas  ft/f,  affection  for  you 
memoria  nostril  recollectio7i  of  me 
contentio  honorum,  struggle  for  office 
desiderium  oti^  lo7iging  for  ?'est 
amor  patriae,  love  of  country 

metus  hostium,  fear  of  the  enemy  (i.  e.  fear  of  which  the  enemy  is  the 
object;  cf.  §  328.  n.) 

355.  Instead  of  the  objective  genitive  a  possessive  pronoun,  a 
descriptive  adjective,  or  a  noun  with  a  preposition,  is  sometimes  used. 

mea  invidia,  my  unpopularity  (i.e.  the  unpopularity  of  which  I  am 

the  object),  instead  of  invidia  mei 
neque  neglegentia  tua  neque  id  odio  fecit  tuo,  he  did  this  neither  from 

?ieglect  of  you  nor  from  hatred  toward  you 
metus   hostUis,  fear  of  the   enemy  (hostile  fear),    instead  of  metus 

hostium 
odium  in  Antonium,  hate  of  Antony,  instead  of  odium  Antoni 
amor  erga  te,  love  for  you,  instead  of  amor  tui 

356.  Genitive  of  Application.  The  objective  genitive  may 
be  used  to  denote  that  to  which  the  quality  expressed  by  a 
noun  or  adjective  applies. 

praestantia  virtUtis,  preeminence  in  virtue 

pauper  aquae,  poor  in  water 

integer  vitae  scelerisque  purus,  upright  in  life  and  free  from  guilt 

fessi  rerum,  weary  of  hardships 

Note.  This  construction  is  freely  used  by  the  poets  and  later  writers, 
but  is  rare  in  Ciceronian  prose. 

357.  Genitive  with  Adjectives  expressing  Action  or  Feeling. 

The  objective  genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  object  of  an  action 
or  feeling  expressed  by  an  adjective  whose  meaning  would 
otherwise  be  incomplete. 


GENITIVE  WITH  VERHS  173 

Such  adjectives  are  especially  those  denoting  desire^  knou'Udgt, 
ski//,  memory^  pinver,  participation,  and  their  opposites ;  also  parti- 
cipial adjectives  in  -ns  and  certain  verbals  in  -ftx. 

cupidus  rerum  novdrum,  desirous  of  a  m>o/ution 
insuetus  navigandi,  unacquainted  wit  It  na%>igation 
peritus  belU,  skil/ed  in  war 
immemor  beneficx,  forgetfui  of  a  favor 
potens  tempestatum,  powerful  over  t/te  stonns 
coniurationis  participes,  s/iaring  in  tlie  conspiracy 
^atiins  frigoris,  enduring  ofco/d 
tenax  propositi,  steadfast  of  purpose 

Note  i  .  With  verbals  in  -ax  the  genitive  is  found  only  in  poetry  and 
in  late  prose. 

Notp:  2.  The  poets  and  later  writers,  especially  Tacitus,  use  the  genitive 
with  almost  any  adjective  to  denote  that  wit  It  reference  to  whicli  the  quality 
exists.  The  construction  demanded  in  classic  prose  would  be  the  ablative  of 
resp>ect(§  478),  hence  this  genitive  is  sometimes  called  the  genitive  of  resjject. 

callidus  rei  mtlitaris  (Tacitus),  skilled  in  the  science  of -ioar 
notus  animi  paterni  {\\.orz.c€),  famed  for  a  paternal  spirit 

358.  Genitive  with  Verbs.  Verbs  of  remembering  and  for- 
getting—  memini,  reminiscor,  obliviscor — may  take  the  objective 
genitive.^ 

a.  When  the  object  is  a  person,  memini  takes  either  the  genitive 
or  the  accusative,  obliviscor  only  the  genitive  in  prose,  but  the 
accusative  occurs  occasionally  in  poetry. 

ipse  sui  meminerat,  lie  was  mindful  of  himself 

mvorum  memini  nee  Epicuri  licet  oblivisci,  /  retnemher  the  living  and 

I  must  not  forget  Epicurus 
Cinnam  memini,  /  remember  Cinna 
obliviscere  Graids  (X ergiX),  forget  the  Greeks 

^  The  genitive  with  verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  may  be  due  to 
the  close  relationship  between  these  verbs  and  the  adjectives  memor,  mindful 
of,  and  immemor,  unmindful  of,  which  take  the  genitive.  However,  in  the 
earliest  I^tin  the  genitive  is  much  less  frequent  than  the  accusative.  There 
is  apparently  po  essential  difference  in  meanirfg  between  the  genitive  and 
accusative  with  these  verbs. 


176  GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS 

b.  When  the  object  is  a  tking,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor 
take  either  the  genitive  or  the  accusative  of  a  noun  and  generally 
only  the  accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective. 

reminiscatur  virtutis  Helvetiorum,  /<?/  Aim  remember  the  valor  of  the 

Helvetians 
totam  causam  oblitus  est,  he  forgot  the  whole  case 
obliviscere  caedis  atque  incendiorum,  forget  murder  and  conflagrations 
multa  meminerunt,  they  reme?nber  many  things 

359.  The  verb  recorder,  recollect,  recall,  regularly  takes  the  accu- 
sative. 

recordamini  omnis  civilis  dissensiones,  recall  all  the  civil  wars 

360.  The  expression  mihi  (tibi,  etc.)  in  mentem  venit,  when  im- 
personal, takes  the  genitive. 

venit  mihi  Platonis  in  mentem,  the  thought  of  Plato  co?nes  to  7ny 
niitid 

361.  Verbs  of  reminding  —  admoneo,  commoneo,  commonefacio 
—  often  take,  along  w^ith  the  accusative  of  the  person  reminded, 
the  gejiitive  of  the  thmg  called  to  mind. 

te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  he  remitids  you  of  friendship 
Note.    But  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  is  put  in  the  accusative. 
illud  me  admones,  you  remind  me  of  that 

362.  Verbs  of  reminding  frequently  take  d6  with  the  ablative. 
de  proelio  vos  admonui,  I  have  retninded you  of  the  battle 

363.  Impersonal  verbs  of  feeling  —  miseret,  paenitet,  piget, 
pudet,  taedet  —  take,  with  the  accusative  of  the  person  feeling, 
the  genitive  of  that  toward  which  the  feeling  is  directed. 

me  miseret  ft/f,  I  pity  you  (lit.  it  pities  me  of  you) 

me  non  solum  piget  stultitiae  meae  sed  etiam  pudet,  /  /?w  fiot  only^ 

grieved  at  my  folly  but  also  ashamed  of  it 
vttae  me  taedet,  /  am  wea?y  of  life 


DATIVE  CASE  1 77 

364.  With  verbs  of  feeling,  an  infinitive,  a  clause,  or  a  neuter 
pronoun  used  as  subject,  often  takes  the  place  of  the  genitive. 

n6n  me  paenitet  vixisse,  I  do  not  rej^ret  iliat  I  have  lived 

me  quia  tuas  litteras  non  accept  piget,  /  am  sorry  that  I  har>e  not 

recei'-i'fd  your  letter 
nftn  te  haec  pudent,  do  not  these  things  shame  yoft  f 

Note  i.  Observe  that  in  the  last  example  the  verb  is  no  longer  im- 
personal. The  personal  construction  is  not  uncommon  with  pudet,  and  is 
found  occasionally  with  paenitet  and  piget. 

Note  2.  With  pudet  the  genitive  may  be  used  of  the  person  before 
whom  one  is  ashamed. 

pudet  me  hdrum  iudicum,  I  am  ashamed  before  these  judges 

365.  Misereor  and  misergscO, //^j,  take  the  genitive. 
tiorum  miseremur,  we  pity  them 

366.  Potior,  have  power  over,  get  possession  of,  usually  takes  the 
ablative  (of.  §  469.  a.  x.  i),  but  occasionally  the  genitive;  as  always 
in  the  phrase  potiri  rferum,  to  become  master  of  affairs  (in  a  political 
or  military  sense). 

THE  DATIVE  CASE 

367.  The  dative  case  originally  denoted  the  direction  of  motion. 
This  relationship  is  generally  expressed  in  English  by  the  prepositions 
to  and  for. 

Note.  Direction  of  motion  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
goal  or  limit  of  motion,  the  original  force  of  the  accusative.    See  §  402. 

368.  The  dative  is  used  with  verbs  and  adjectives,  less  frequendy 
with  nouns  and  adverbs,  and  sometimes  modifies  the  sentence  as  a 
whole. 

369.  The  constructions  of  the  dative  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  according  as  the  original  meaning  of  the  case  has 
been  retained  or  has  been  changed  and  obscured  by  later 
developments. 


1/8 


DATIVE  OF  THE  INDIRECT  OBJECT 


I.  Original  uses 
of  the  dative 


r  I .   Dative  of  the  indirect  object  with  transitive  verbs  (§371) 
Dative  of  the  indirect  object  with  intransitive  verbs 

(§376) 
Dative  of  the  indirect  object  with  verbs  compounded 

with  prepositions  (§  382) 

r  a.  Dative  of  the  person  judging 

(§  387) 
b.  Ethical  dative  (§  388) 
II.  Derived  and  [  c.  Dative  of  separation  (§  389) 

special  uses  of  -l  2.  Dative  of  possession  (§  390) 
the  dative         3-   Dative  of  apparent  agent  (§  392) 
4.   Dative  of  purpose  (§  395) 
^5.  Dative  with  adjectives  (§  397) 


Dative  of  reference 
(§  385) 


Indirect  Object  Defined 

370.  The  object  tozvard  which  an  action  or  feeling  is  di- 
rected is  put  in  the  dative.    This  is  called  the  indirect  object.^ 

Note.  This  construction  occurs  in  English  ("  he  gave  me  a  book  ''),  but 
has  been  to  some  extent  displaced  by  to  with  an  object  ("  he  gave  the  book 
to  me  "). 

Indirect  Object  with  Transitive  Verbs 

371.  The  dative  of  the  indirect  object,  with  the  accusative 
of  the  direct  object,  may  be  used  with  any  active  transitive 
verb  whose  meaning  allows. 

Such  verbs  are  especially  those  meaning  give,  say,  promise,  reply, 
do,  and  the  Hke. 

d  filiam  suam  in  matrimonium  dat,  he  gives  to  him  his  daughter  in 

marriage 
hoc  Uhi  dico,  /  say  this  to  you 

els  auxilium  suum  pollicitus  est,  he  proinised  them  his  assistance 
haec  memoriae  mandavi,  /  committed  this  to  memory 

1  In  this  use  the  dative  has  retained  unchanged  its  original  idea  of  direction 
of  motion,  though  in  Latin  the  motion  is  generally  to  be  understood  in  a 
figurative  rather  than  in  a  literal  sense. 


DATIVE  OF  THE  INDIRECT  OBJECT  179 

372.  Verbs  which,  in  the  active  voice,  take  the  accusative  and 
dative  retain  the  dative  when  used  in  the  passive. 

Thus,  puella  patri  fabulam  narrat,  //le  girl  tells  the  story  to  her  father, 
becomes  in  the  passive  fabula  patri  a  puella  narratur,  the  story  is  told 
to  the  father  by  the  girl.  Observe  the  same  dative,  patri,  in  both 
sentences. 

373.  Verbs  of  motion,  like  mittO  and  fer5,  which  regularly  take 
the  accusative  with  a  preposition,  sometimes  take  the  dative  when 
tio  real  motion  is  involved  or  when  the  idea  of  giving  or  delivering 
something  to  somebody  is  uppermost.  Similarly  the  verb  scribO,  writey 
varies  in  construction  between  the  dative  and  the  accusative  with 
a  preposition. 

suppetias  mi  audet  ferre,    he  dares  to  bring  me  aid 
iussit  Euclidm   haec   mittere,   he  gave  orders  to  send  these  things 
•     lo  En  it  to 
litteras  quas  ad  Pompeium  scrips!,  the  letter  which  I  wrote  (and  sent) 

to  Povipey 
non  qu6  haberem  quod  tihi  scriberem,  not  that  I  had  anything  to 

write  to  you 

Note.  This  use  of  the  dative  is  found  in  prose  only  with  nouns  de- 
noting persons.  With  concrete  objects  the  accusative  with  a  preposition 
is  almost  invariable. 

374.  The  verbs  d5n6,  give\  circumdO,  surround  \  exu6,  strip  off\ 
and  a  few  others,  admit  either  of  two  constructions:  {a)  dative  of 
the  person,  accusative  of  the  thing ;  or  (J))  accusative  of  the  person, 
ablative  of  the  thing. 

mtlitibus  coronas  donat,  he  presents  wreaths  to  the  soldiers 
mtlites  coronis  donat,  he  presents  his  so/d/^-rx  :,'////  rivv,////.f 

375.  In  poetr)'  the  dative  sometimes  retains  its  on^^inal  meaning 
of  direction  of  motion  in  a  literal  sense. 

it  clamor  caelo  (X'ergil),  the  shout  rises  heavenward 


VI 


l8o  DATIV.E  WITH  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS 

Indirect  Object  .with  Intransitive  Verbs 

376.  The  dative  may  be  used  with  any  intransitive^  verV 
whose  meaning  allows  an  indirect  object. 
Among  these  are  especially  the  following : 

auxilior,  opitulor,  help  irascor,  suscenseo,  be  angiy    . 

credo,  believe  minitor,  threaten 

diffido,  distrust  noceo,  injure 

displiced,  displease  parco,  tempero,  spare 

faveo,  studeo,  y^z^^r  pareo,  cedo,  obtempero,  obey^ 

fido,  confido,  tj-ust  yield  to,  submit  to 

ignosco,  pardojt  placeo,  please 

impero,  command  resists,  7esist 

indulged,  indulge  servio,  se?-7)e 

invideo,  envy  suadeo,  persuaded, /^rj/z^rt^i? 

ciir  mihi  invides,  why  do  you  envy  me  ? 
mihi  parcit  atque  ign5scit,  he  spares  and  pardons  me 
legibus  pared,  /  obey  the  laws 

ndn  omnibus  servid,  /  am  not  a  servaiit  to  every  man 
prima  acies  victis  resistlt,  the  first  line  resists  the  vanquished 
Orgetorix  persuadet  Ccstico,  Orgetorix  persuades  Casticus 
decimae  legiom  Caesar  indulserat  praecipue  et  cdnf idebat  maxime,  CcEsar 
had  especially  indulged  the  tenth  legion  and  trusted  it  most  of  all 

Note  i.  In  English  most  of  these  verbs  are  transitive  and  take  a  direct 
object,  but  in  Latin  the  original  meaning  is  intransitive  and  adapted  to  an 
indirect  object. 

Thus,  invidere,  to  envy,  is  literally  to  look  askance  at ;  servire,  to  serve,  is 
to  be  a  slave  to ;  persuadere,  to  persuade,  is  to  7nake  a  thitig pleasant  to,  etc. 

Note  2.   Fidd  and  cdnfidd  {trust)  take  also  the  ablative. 

moltum  natura  loci  cdnfidebant,  tAey  had  great  confidence  in  the  natural 
strength  of  the  place 

a.  Some  verbs  apparently  of  the  same  meanings  are  transitive  and 
take  the  accusative. 

Such  are  iuvo,  help;  laedd,  injure;  iubed,  order;  delectQ,  please; 
offendo,  oj^end. 

^  A  verb  is  called  intransitive  if  it  does  not  admit  of  a  direct  object 


DATIVE  WITH   INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  l8l 

377.  Phrases  take  the  dative  precisely  like  verbs  of  similar  character. 
Such  are  audiens  esse  or  dictO  audifins  esse,  to  be  ohedUnt  to ;  and 

fidem  hab€re,  to  have  confidence  in. 

Caesar  «  fidem  habSbat,  Casar  had  confidence  in  him 

378.  The  dative  is  used  with  the  impersonals  libet  or  lubet,  // 
pleases^  and  licet,  /'/  is  permitted  \  and  with  the  verbs  dicO  and  faciO 
compounded  with  satis,  bene,  and  male. 

petierunt  ut  sibi  legates  mittere  liceret,  they  asked  that  it  be  permitted 

them  to  send  ambassadors 
pQlchnim  est  benefacere  r«  pUblicae,  it  is  a  glorious  thing  to  be  of 

sendee  to  the  state 

379.  Intransitive  verbs  that  govern  the  dative  are  used 
impersonally  in  the  passive  and  retain  the  dative. 

For  example,  the  active  mihi  persuade(J,  /persuade  myself,  becomes 
in  the  passive  mihi  persuadgtur,  lam  persuaded  (X\i.  it  is  persuaded  to  me). 

380.  Some  verbs,  ordinarily  intransitive  and  used  with  the 
dative,  become  transitive  in  certain  senses  and  add  an  accu- 
sative of  the  direct  object  to  the  dative. 

These  are  especially  the  verbs  cr6d5,  tntst ;  imperO,  levy ; 
minor,  threaten  ;  persuadeC,  persuade. 

multi  si  suaque  omnia  alienissimis  crediderunt,  many  intrusted  them- 
selves and  all  their  possessions  to  utter  strangers 

Cretensibus  obsides  imperavit,  he  levied  hostages  on  the  Cretans 

id  eis  persuasit.  he  persuaded  them  (of)  this 

AacaniSne  pater  R5manas  invidet  arcls  (Vergil),  does  the  father  be- 
grudge Ascanius  his  Roman  citadels?  [Poetic  or  late.] 

381.  In  poetry  the  dative  is  sometimes  used  in  e.xpressions  which 
would  in  prose  require  a  different  construction.  So  especially  with 
verbs  of  contending,  following  the  analogy  of  the  Greek. 

placit5ne  etiam  pugnabis  anion  (Vergil),  will  you  struggle  even  against 

a  love  that  pleases  you  ?  [In  prose:  cum  amOre.] 
tibi  certat  (Vergil),  he  vies  with  you.   [In  prose:  ticnm.] 
latefi  abdidit  ensem  ( \'ergil),  he  buried  the  strord  in  his  side.  [  I  n  prose : 
in  latus  or  in  latere.] 


1 82  DATIVE  WITH  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS 

Indirect  Object  with  Verbs  Compounded  with  Prepositions 

382.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ad,  ante, 
circum,  con-,  de,  in,  iHter,  ob,  post,  prae,  sub,  and  super  admit,  as 
the  result  of  the  composition,  the  dative  of  the  indirect  object. 
These  verbs  are  of  three  classes  : 

1.  Intransitive  verbs  which  in  their  simple  form  cannot 
take  an  indirect  object. 

equitatui  Dumnorix  praeerat,  Dujnnorix  was  m  command  of  the  cavalry 
omnibus  rebus  amorem  credo  antevenire,  I  believe  that  love  comes 

before  all  thmgs 
defuit  officio,  he  has  failed  in  his  duty  * 

2.  Transitive  verbs  that  through  composition  become  intran- 
sitive and  therefore  take  the  dative  instead  of  the  accusative. 

omnibus  adridet^  he  smiles  upoti  all.    [Rideo,  laugh  at,  ridicule,  takes 

the  accusative.] 
tempestati  obsequi  artis  est,  //  is  a  point  of  skill  to  yield  to  the 

weather.   [Sequor,  follow,  takes  the  accusative.] 

3.  Transitive  verbs  that  through  composition  become  capable 
of  governing  a  dative  of  the  indirect  object  in  addition  to  an 
accusative  of  the  direct  object. 

finitimis  bellum  mferebant,  they  made  war  upon  their  neighbors 

is  sibi  legati5nem  ad  civitatis  suscepit,  he  took  upofi  himself  the 

embassy  to  the  states 
munitioni  Labienum  praeficit,  he  puts  Labienus  in  commafid  of  the 

fortification 

a.  Many  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  compounded  with  these 
prepositions  do  not  take  the  dative  because  the  acquired  meaning  is 
not  suited  to  an  indirect  object. 

Thus  the  following  compounds  take  the  accusative : 

adeo,  approach  convoco,  call  together  offendo,  offend 

adgredior,  attack  ineo,  enter  oppugn5,  assault 

circumsto,  surround  interficio,  kill  praecedd,  excel 

convenio,  tneet  obeo,  visit,  attend  to  subeo,  undergo 


DATIVE  OF  REFERENCE  183 

b.  In  expressions  of  locality  or  motion  the  usual  construction  after 
these  compounds  is  a  noun  with  a  preposition. 

hostes  ad  fossam  accesserunt.  ///^r  enemy  drew  near  to  the  ditch  (but 

sententiae  tuae  accedo,  1  yield  to  your  opinion) 
in  segetem  flamma  incidit,  the  fire  falls  on  the  standing  grain 

383.  A  few  verbal  nouns  (as,  insidiae,  ambush  ;  obtemperatiO, 
obedience)  may  take  the  dative  like  the  corresponding  verbs. 

insidiae  consult,  the  plot  against  the  consul  \ci.  insidior) 
obtemperatio  legibus,  obedience  to  the  laws  (cf.  obtempero) 

384.  The  adjective  obvius  and  the  adverb  obviam  with  a  verb 
take  the  dative. 

cm  mater  sese  tulit  obvia,  his  mother  met  him 

Vercingetorix  obviam  Caesari  proficiscitur,  Vercingetorix  sets  out  to 
meet  Casar 

Dative  of  Reference 

385.  The  dative  of  reference  denotes  the  person  for  whose 
benefit  or  to  whose  injury  the  action  is  performed,  or  whom  it 
remotely  concerns. 

In  this  use  the  dative  does  not  depend  upon  a  single  word,  but  is 
loosely  connected  with  the  sentence  as  a  whole  and  is  not  essential 
to  its  ^ammatical  completeness.  It  is  often  used  where  we  should 
expect  a  possessive  genitive  or  a  possessive  pronoun,  especially  with 
substantives  denoting  parts  of  the  body. 

Bellovaci  totius  belli  imperium  sibi  postulant,  the  Bello^taci  demand 

for  themselves  the  supreme  control  of  the  entire  war 
sese  Caesan  ad  pedes  prSiecerunt.  they  threw  themselves  at  Ctrsar'sfeet 
versatur  mihi  ante  oculos  aspectus  Cethegi,  the  sight  of  Cethegus  comes 

before  my  eyes 
taurum  Neptuno  mactavit,  he  sacrificed  a  bull  to  Neptune 
omnes  in  fuga  sibi  praesidiimi  pdnebant.  all  sought  safety  for  them- 

selves  in  flight 
homo  ndn  sibi  sdli  vivit,  man  lioes  not  live  for  himself  alone 


1 84  DATIVE  OF  REFERENCE 

laudavit  mihi  fratrem,  he  praised  my  brother  (out  of  regard  for  me ; 

laudavit  fratrem  meum  would  not  imply  any  such  motive) 
quid  ft'W  vis,  what  do  you  7nean  ?  (lit,  what  do  you  wish  for  yourself  ?) 
Caesar  suis  quoque  rlhus  Germanos  timere  voluit,  CcEsar  wished  the 

Germans  to  fear  for  their  own  interests  also 

386.  The  dative  of  reference  is  used  idiomatically  without  any  verb 
in  certain  colloquial  questions  and  exclamations  and  after  interjections. 

quo  mihi  fortunam,  of  what  use  to  me  is  fortune  f 
unde  mihi  lapidem,  where  can  I  get  a  stone  ? 
ei  mihi^  ah  me  ! 
vae  victis^  woe  to  the  conquered ! 

387.  The  dative  of  reference  is  used  to  denote  the  person 
in  whose  judgment  or  opinion  something  is  true. 

This  is  often  called  the  dative  of  the  person  judgiiig. 

erit  ille  mihi  semper  deus,  he  will  always  be  a  god  in  tny  opi?iio?i 
oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  Epiro,  the  first  town  of 

Thessaly  as  you  cojnefrojn  Epirus  (lit.  to  those  coming frojn  Epirus) 
est  urbe  egressis  tumulus,  there  is,  as  you  come  out  of  the  city,  a 

moutid  (lit.  to  those  having  come  out) 

Note  that  in  defining  diredioii  the  person  is  expressed  indefinitely 
by  a  participle  without  a  supporting  pronoun  (as  in  the  second  and 
third  examples). 

388.  The  dative  of  a  personal  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  to 
denote  the  person's  interest  in  the  fact  stated  or  merely  to  call 
attention.  This  construction  is  called  the  ethical  dative.  It  is 
a  variety  of  the  dative  of  reference. 

Tongilium  mihi  eduxit,  //^  took  Tongilius  with  hifn,  I  am  happy  to  say 
quid  mihi  Celsus  agit,  what  is  Celsus  doing,  I  shotild  like  to  k?iow  ? 
hem  ft'Wtalentum  argenti,  a  talent  of  silver,  mark  y 021 ! 
non  Beroe  vobls  est,  this  is  not  Bero'e,  I  tell  you 

Note.  It  is  obvious  from  the  examples  that  the  connection  of  this 
dative  is  very  loose  and  its  exact  force  hard  to  render  or  define.  Many 
examples  of  it  occur  in  Shakespearean  English :  as,  "  He  plucked  ine  ope 
his  doublet,"  "  He  thrusts  me  himself  into  the  company." 


DATIVE  OF  APPARENT  AGENT  185 

389.  Many  verbs  denoting  separation,  especially  compounds 
of  ab,  de,  and  ex,  may  take  the  dative  of  the  persoti  from  ivhom 
instead  of  the  ablative  of  separation. 

hunc  mihi  terrorem  eripe,  take  this  terror  from  me 

nihil  tibi  detraxit  senatus,  the  senate  has  taken  nothing  from  you 

Note.  This  construction,  sometimes  called  the  dative  of  separation,  is 
a  variety  of  the  dative  of  reference.  It  represents  the  action  as  done  to 
or  yi?r  the  person.  The  poets  extend  the  usage  to  many  verbs  not  admitting 
this  construction  in  pH)se, 

a.  With  names  of  things  the  ablative  with  a  preposition  is  the 
regular  construction,  but  the  dative  occurs  in  poetry. 

silici  scintillam   excudit  Achates  (Vergil),  Achates  struck  a  spark 

from  the  flint 
eripe  te  moTQt  (Horace),  shake  off  delay 

Dative  of  Possession 

390.  The  dative  is  used  with  forms  of  sum  to  denote  the 

■> 

possessor. 

est  mihi  pater,  /  have  a  father 

ei  filius  est,  he  /uis  a  son 

imperatori  nomen  est  C&tsax,  the  general  has  the  name  Casar 

a.  With  nOmen  est  the  name  as  well  as  the  person  is  often  put  in 
the  dative. 

nomen  Arcturo  est  mihi,  my  name  is  Arcturus 

391.  Possession  is  also  expressed  by  habeO  with  the  accusative, 
with  no  essential  difference  in  meaning;  but  the  dative  with  esse  is 
more  common  in  expressions  of  naming. 

Dative  of  Apparent  Agent 

392.  The  dative  is  used  regularly  with  the  passive  peri- 
phrastic, and  often  with  the  compound  tenses  of  the  regular 
passive,  to  express  the  agent  or  doer} 

^  The  origin  of  the  dative  of  apparent  agent  is  not  certain. 


186  DATIVE  OF  PURPOSE 

Caesarf  omnia  uno  tempore  erant  agenda,  everything  had  to  be  do?ie 

at  the  same  jnoment  by  CcEsar 
haec  vohis  provincia  est  defendenda,  this  province  must  be  defe?ided 

by  yon 
mihi  res  provisa  est,  the  matter  has  been  seen  to  by  me 

a.  The  dative  of  apparent  agent  is  rare  with  other  parts  of  the  verb, 
neque  cernitur  ulli  (Vergil),  nor  is  he  seen  by  any  one 

393.  The  regular  construction  denoting  agency,  the  ablative  with 
^^  (§  453)>  is  usual  with  all  passive  forms  except  the  gerundive,  and 
must  sometimes  be  used  even  with  that  to  avoid  ambiguity. 

quibus  est  a  vobis  consulendum,  yb;-  whom  yon  must  consult.   [Here 
two  datives,  quibus  and  v5bis,  would  be  ambiguous.] 

394.  The  gerundive  of  intransitive  verbs  is  impersonal,  and  the 
dative  of  agent  becomes  in  English  the  subject  nominative. 

omnibus  moriendum  est,  a/i  must  die  (lit.  //  must  be  died  by  alt) 
Caesari  non  exspectandum  est,  Casar  must  not  wait 

Dative  of  Purpose 

395.  TJie  dative  is  used,  especially  with  forms  of  sum,  to 
denote  the  pjirpose  for  which,  often  accompanied  by  the  dative 
of  reference  denoting  the  person  or  thing  concei-ned} 

Caesar  sihi  earn  rem  curae  futuram  poUicitus  est,  Ccpsar  promised  that 

he  would  see  to  that  matter  (lit.  that  that  matter  would  be  for 

a  care  to  him) 
hoc  GalUs  magno  erat  impedimentd^  this  was  (for)  a  great  hindrance  to 

the  Gauls 
hi  novissimis  praesidio  erant,  these  were  {for)  a  guard  to  the  rear 
hoc  erit  tibi  doloru  this  will  cause  you  grief  ([\i.  will  be  for  a  grief  to 

yo7i) 
cui  bond,  who  will  be  the  gainer?  (lit.  to  whom  will  it  be  for  an 

advantage  f) 

1  The  dative  of  purpose  is  a  natural  development  of  the  notion  of  direction 
of  motion,  the  fundamental  meaning  of  the  dative  case  (of.  §  367). 


DATIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES  187 

a.  The  following  examples  show  the  dative  of  purpose  unaccom- 
panied by  a  dative  of  reference. 

locum  castrls  deligit,  /le  selects  a  site  for  a  camp 

diem  concilio  c5nstituenmt,  //ie_y  appointed  a  day  for  a  council 

receptui  canit,  Ae  gives  the  signal  for  retreat 

396.  The  dative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  sometimes  denotes 
purpose.    See  §  Sjj.a. 

Dative  with  Adjectives 

397.  The  dative  is  used  with  adjectives  to  denote  that  to 
ivhich  the  given  quality  is  directed,  or  that  for  ivhich  it  exists 
or  senses} 

a.  The  dative  is  used  with  adjectives  oi  fitness,  nearness,  likeness, 
senile,  indination,  and  others  of  similar  or  opposite  meaning. 

nihil  est  tam  naturae  aptum,  nothing  is  so  fitted  to  nature 

Belgae  proximi  suut  Germdnis,  the  Beiges  are  nearest  to  the  Germans 

impar  Hannibali  er&t,  he  was  no  match  for  Hannibal 

similis  deo  erat,  he  luas  like  a  god 

castris  id5neum  locum  delegit,  he  chose  a  place  suitable  for  a  camp 

tribuni  nobis  sunt  amici,  the  tribunes  are  ffiendly  to  us 

crat  benignus  cunctis,  he  was  friendly  to  all 

Note.  In  Caesar  the  adjectives  most  common  with  the  dative  are 
finitimus,  iddneus,  and  proximus. 

398.  Other  constructions  are  sometimes  found  where  the 
dative  might  be  expected. 

a.  Some  adjectives  take  either  the  dative,  or  the  accusative  with 
a  preposition. 

ad  amicitiam  est  idoneus,  he  is  ftted  for  friendship 
cSmis  in  uxorem  est.  he  is  kind  to  his  wife 
gratior  sum  in  te,  I  am  more  grateful  to  you 

»  The  first  use  corresponds  to  the  dative  of  the  indirect  object ;  the  second 
to  the  dative  of  purpose.  Both  are  plainly  developments  of  the  fundamenUl 
dative  notion  of  directiott  of  motion. 


1 88  ACCUSATIVE:  CASE 

b.  With  similis  or  dissimilis  the  genitive  is  more  common  than  the 
dative  in  early  writers.  Classic  writers  use  either  the  genitive  or  da- 
tive, but  with  personal  pronouns  the  genitive  is  regular  (cf.  §  351.  n.). 

domini  similis  es  (Terence),  you  are  like  your  master 
pater  est  mei  similis,  my  father  is  like  me 

c.  With  ^X^AYi^x^,  foreign  to,  the  genitive  or  dative  may  be  used,  but 
the  ablative,  with  or  without  a,  is  the  prevailing  construction. 

alienum  a  vita  mea,  foreign  to  7ny  life 

mea  existimdtione  alienum,  foreign  to  my  thought 

399.  A  few  adverbs  of  likeness  take  the  dative. 

vivere  convenienter  naturae,  to  live  in  confo?'mity  with  nature 

400.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  of  likeness  or  unlikeness  are  often 
followed  by  atque  (ac),  et,  or  -que,  meaning  as,  than,  ox  from.  The 
pronoun  idem,  the  same,  regularly  takes  either  this  construction  or  a 
relative  clause. 

alius  nunc  ego  sum  atque  olim,  /  a7n  diffe7'ent  now  frojn  (what  I  was) 

before 
vita  est  eadem  ac  fuit,  life  is  the  saine  as  it  was 
idem  abeunt  qui  venerant,  the  sa^ne  men  go  as  had  come 

401.  In  expressions  of  motion  the  adjectives  propior,  proximus, 
and  the  adverbs  propius,  proxime,  usually  take  the  accusative  with  or 
without  ad. 

castra  movit  propius  Avaricum,  he  7novedthe  ca7np  7iearer  to  Avaricum 

For  the  genitive  with  adjectives  see  §  357. 

THE  ACCUSATIVE  CASE 

402.  It  is  probable  that  the  accusative  case  originally  denoted  the 
goal  or  limit  of  7notion.  To  this  use  the  accusative  of  the  direct 
object,  the  accusative  of  extent,  and  the  accusative  of  the  place 
whither  may  be  readily  traced.  But  it  is  impossible  to  derive  all  the 
constructions  of  the  accusative  from  any  single  function  of  that  case. 


ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  DIRECT  OBJECT 


89 


Accusative  of 
the  direct  object 


403.  The  original  and  derived  uses  of  the  accusative  are : 

1.  Accusative  of  the  direct  object  (§  404) 

2.  Accusative  of  kindred  meaning  (§  408) 

3.  Two  accusatives  —  direct  object  and  secondary  object 
(§412) 

4.  Two  accusatives  —  direct  object  and  adjunct  accusative 
(§4'6). 

5.  Accusative  as  subject  of  an  infinitive  (§419) 

1 .  Accusative  of  extent  and  duration  (§  420) 

2.  Accusative  of  respect  (§427) 

3.  Accusative  of  the  place  whither  (§  428) 

4.  Accusative  of  exclamation  (§  436) 

5.  Idiomatic  uses  of  the  accusative  (§  438) 

6.  Accusative  with  prepositions  (§  276) 


Other  uses  of 
the  accusative 


Accusative  of  the  Direct  Object 

404.  The  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  put  in  the 

accusative. 

Caesar  Gallos  vicit,  CtFsar  conquered  the  Gauls 

Romani  Carthdginem  deleverunt,  M<?  /Romans  destroyed  Carthage 

Cicero  multas  orationis  scripsit,  Cicero  wrote  many  orations 

Note.  The  direct  object  may  express  either  the  person  or  thing  directly 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  verb  (as  in  the  first  two  examples)  or  the 
result  or  product  of  the  action  (as  in  the  last  example).  Transitive  verbs 
require  a  direct  object  to  complete  their  sense.  Verbs  not  admitting  a 
direct  object  are  called  intransitive. 

405.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes 
its  subject  in  the  passive,  and  is  put  in  the  nominative. 

Active  :  Caesar  GoAlos  vicit,  Casar  conquered  the  Gauls 

Passive  :  GaXRl.  Caesare  victi  sunt,  the  Gauls  were  conquered  by  Cctsar 

406.  Certain  classes  of  verbs  taking  a  direct  object  require 
special  notice. 

^' Ji  Vcifbs  Qfy5K7/«^,  often  intransitive,  are  sometimes  transitive  an(l 
may  be  used. with  an  accusative  or  in  the  passive. 


IQO  ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  DIRECT  OBJECT 

meum  cdsum  luctumque  doluerunt,  ^/ley  grieved  at  7ny  calafnity  and 

soi'row 
Ariovisti  crudelitdtem  horrent,  they  shudder  at  the  crueUy  of  Ariovistus 
ab  omnibus  ridetur,  he  is  laughed  at  by  all 

Note.  So,  too,  despero,  despair  of\  gemo,  bemoan  ;  queror,  complain 
of;  maereo,  bewail;  sitio,  thirst  for;  etc. 

6.  Verbs  of  motion  (compounds  of  ad,  circum,  in,  praeter,  sub,  trans), 
and  a  few  others,  frequently  become  transitive  and  take  the  accusative. 
oppidum  adire,  to  approach  the  town 
sendtum  circumstare,  to  stand  about  the  senate 
magistrdtum  inire,  to  enter  upon  an  office 
omnia  praeterire,  to  overlook  everything 
pericula  subire,  to  undergo  perils 
flumen  transire,  to  cross  the  river 

c.  A  few  verbs,  regularly  intransitive  in  classic  prose,  are  some- 
times transitive  in  poetry  and  late  Latin. 

me  lupus  fugit  (Horace),  a  wolf  fed  from  me 
aequor  navigare  (Vergil),  to  sail  the  sea 
maria  aspera  iur5  (Vergil),  /  swear  by  the  rough  sea 
nee  latuere  doli  frdtrem  lunonis  (Vergil),  7wr  did  the  wiles  of  fun  o 
escape  her  brother 

d.  By  a  Greek  idiom,  the  passive  of  many  verbs,  especially  of 
those  meaning  to  put  oft,  is  used  by  the  poets  as  middle  ^  and  takes 
a  direct  object,  sometimes  styled  the  medial  object. 

ferrum  cingitur  (Vergil),  he  girds  on  his  sword 

induitur /ac/em  Dianae  (Ovid),  he  assumes  the  appearance  of  Diana 

nodo  sinus  collecta  (Vergil),  having  gathered  her  dress  in  a  knot 

407.  Impersonal  verbs,  if  transitive,  take  the  accusative  like 
other  transitive  verbs.  _ 
vds  decet,  it  becomes  you 
me  iuvat,  //  pleases  me 
me  pudet,  /  am  ashatned  (lit.  it  shames  me) 
me  fallit,  /  a?n  mistaken  (lit.  //  deceives  me) 

1  The  middle  voice,  well  preserved  and  much  used  in  Greek,  represents 
the  subject  as  acting  on  itself  (that  is,  reflexively) :  as,  ferrum  cingitur,  he  girds 
his  sword  on  himself.    The  Latin  passive  had  originally  a  middle  meaning.       - 


ACCUSATIVE  OF  KINDRED  MEANING  191 

Accusative  of  Kindred  Meaning  (Coc5nate  Accusative) 

408.  Many  verbs,  ordinarily  intransitive,  may  take  the  accu- 
sative of  a  noun  of  kindred  meaning. 

quis  tutiorem  vitam  vivit,  loAo  lives  a  safer  life  ? 

tertiam  iam  aetatem  hominum  vivebat,  lie  was  now  living  the  tliini 

generation  of  men 
servitutem  serviunt,  t/iej'  are  in  slavery  (lit.  are  serving  a  sennce) 
Olympia  vicit,  he  won  the  Olympian  victory 
longam  warn  iturus  es,  you  are  about  to  go  on  a  long  journey 

Note.  The  noun  used  as  the  accusative  of  kindred  meaning  is  fre- 
quently derived  from  the  same  root  as  the  verb,  as  in  the  first  and  third 
examples.  Often,  however,  there  is  no  etymological  connection,  but  only 
likeness  in  meaning. 

409.  Verbs  of  taste,  smell,  and  the  like  may  take  an  accusative  of 
kindred  meaning  to  define  or  limit  the  action  of  the  verb. 

mnum  redolet,  //  smells  of  wine 

herbam  mella  sapiunt.  the  honey  tastes  of  grass 

410.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  neuter  adjective  is  very  common 
as  an  accusative  of  kindred  meaning.  The  English  equivalent 
is  often  best  expressed  by  supplying  a  noun. 

id  laetor,  /  rejoice  at  this 

hoc  glorior.  /  make  this  boast 

id  els  persuasit,  he  persuaded  them  of  this 

hoc  te  moneo,'  /  give  you  this  advice 

multa  alia  peccat,  he  commits  many  other  errors 

acerba  tuens.  looking  fiercely  (cf.  Eng.  "  to  look  daggers  ") 

Bacchanalia  vivere,  to  live  in  revelings  (i.e.  to  live  a  Bacchanalian 

life) 
duke  ridens,  smiling  sweetly  (i.e.  smiling  a  sweet  smile) 
aeiemum  serviet,  he  will  be  a  slave  forever  (i.e.  he  will  serve  an 

e^'erlasting  sent  ice) 

^  In  this  case  the  verb  is  transitive,  and  the  accusative  of  kindred  meaning 
is  used  along  with  the  direct  object. 


192  TWO  ACCUSATIVES 

a.  Some  verbs  that  take  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun  or  adjective  as 
an  accusative  of  kindred  meaning  would  take  a  different  construction 
of  a  noun. 

id  laetor,  /  rejoice  at  this 

victoria  mea  laetor,  /  rejoice  at  my  victory 

411.  The  accusative  of  kindred  meaning  (cognate  accusative)  is 
frequent  in  poetry.  Writers  of  classic  prose  use  it  sparingly,  espe- 
cially of  nouns.  Neuter  pronouns  and  neuter  adjectives  thus  used  are 
often  scarcely  distinguishable  from  adverbs. 

Two  Accusatives  —  Direct  Object  and  Secondary  Object 

412.  Transitive  verbs  compounded  with  trans,  rarely  with 
other  prepositions,  may  take  (along  with  the  direct  object)  a 
secondary  object  governed  by  the  preposition. 

CsLesai  Jinmen  exercitum  traducit,  Ccesar  leads  his  army  across  the  river 
Agesilaus  copias  Hellespontum  traiecit,  Agesila'us  took  his  troops  across 

the  Hellespont 
Pompeius  eos  omnia   sua  praesidia  circumdiixit,  Pompey  led  them 

round  all  his  garrisofis 

a.  Trans  is  sometimes,  and  other  prepositions  are  usually,  repeated. 

Caesar  trans  flumen  exercitum  traducit,  Ccrsar  leads  his  army  across 

the  river 
animum  in  spem  veniae  inducere,  to  move  the  mitid  to  the  hope  of 
*  pardon 

b.  The  secondary  object  may  be  retained  with  a  passive  verb. 
Belgae  Rhenum  traducti  sunt,  the  Belgcz  were  led  across  the  Rhine 

413.  Some  verbs  meaning  to  ask,  demaiid,  teach,  and  cel5, 
conceal,  may  take  two  accusatives,  one  of  the  person  {direct 
object)  and  the  other  of  the  thing  {secondar)'  object). 

me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opijiion 

Caesar   Haeduos  frUmentum  flagitat,    CcEsar  detnands  grain   of  the 

HcEdui     . 


TWO  ACCUSATIVES  193 

magister  pueros  tkmenta  docet,  the  teacher  teaches  the  children  their 

ABCs 
n6n  tl  celavi  semtdnem,  I  did  not  conceal  the  conversation  from  you 

Note.  This  construction  is  found  in  classical  authors  with  cel5,  doced, 
flagitft,  6r6,  posed,  reposcS,  rogS,  and  interrogo. 

414.  Some  verbs  of  asking  and  demanding  take  the  ablative  of  the 
person  with  a  preposition  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  person. 

pacem  ab  Romanis  petierunt,  they  sought  peace  from  the  Romans 
Note.   So  always  pct6  and  quaero ;  and  usually  flagitd,  posc5,  postulo. 

415.  With  the  passive  of  rogO,  doceC,  and  a  few  other  verbs, 
the  accusative  of  the  person  becomes  the  subject  and  the  accusative 
of  the  thing  is  retained. 

sententiam  rogatus  sum,  /  was  asked  my  opinion 

puefi  elementa  docti  sunt,  the  children  were  taught  their  A  B  Cs 

Note.    This  accusative  is  sometimes  called  the  retained  object. 

Two  Accusatives  —  Direct  Object  and  Adjunxt  Accusative 

416.  An  accusative  in  the  predicate  referring  to  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  direct  object,  but  not  in  apposition  with 
it,  is  called  an  adjunct  or  predicate  accusative. 

417.  Many  verbs  of  makings  choosingy  callings  regarding, 
shoxving,  and  the  like,  may  take  two  accusatives,  one  the  direct 
object  and  the  other  an  adjunct  accusative. 

turn  consulem  fecerunt,  they  made  him  consul.  [Here  eum  is  the  direct 
object  and  consulem  the  adjunct  accusative.] 

Caesarem  imperatorem  appellayerunt,  they  called  Ccesar  general 

Servium  regem  creaverunt,  /hty  elected  Sennus  king 

hominem  prae  se  neminem  putavit,  he  regarded  no  one  as  a  man  in  com- 
parison with  himself 

Note.  With  verbs  of  regarding  other  constructions  are  common  in- 
stead of  the  adjunct  accusative :  as,  eum  in  numero  hostium  (or  pro  haste) 
habed.  /  regard  him  as  an  en  em  v. 


194     ACCUSATIVE  AS  SUBJECT  OF  AN  INFINITIVE 

a.   The  adjunct  accusative  may  be  an  adjective. 

me  lenissimum  praebui,  /  showed  myself  7nost  merciful 
jne  eius  rei  certiorem  fecit,  he  informed  tne  of  that  matter 

418.  In  the  passive  the  direct  object  becomes  the  subject  nomina- 
tive and  the  adjunct  accusative  becomes  the  predicate  nominative 
(§  309.  b). 

Servius  rex  creatus  est,  Servius  was  chosen  king 

Accusative  as  Subject  of  an  Infinitive 

419.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusative. 

intellego  te  sapere.  I  perceive  that  you  are  wise 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri,  he  says  that  the  mountain  is  held  by 

the  enemy 
nostras  non  esse  inferiores  intellexit,  he  found  that  our  men  were  not 

inferior 

Note  i.  The  accusative  as  subject  of  an  infinitive  was  originally  felt 
as  the  object  of  the  verb  on  which  the  infinitive  depends.  This  construc- 
tion is  especially  common  after  verbs  of  saying,  knowing,  thinking,  per- 
ceiving, and  the  like  (§  839.  a)  in  principal  clauses  of  indirect  discourse. 
See  §  887. 1. 

Note  2.  The  subject  of  the  so-called  historical  infinitive  is  in  the 
nominative  (§  844). 

Accusative  of  Extent  and  Duration 

420.  Extent  of  space  and  duration  of  time  are  expressed  by 

the  accusative. 

421.  The  accusative  of  extent  of  space  answers  the  question 
how  far  f  how  long?  or  how  wide? 

milia  passuum  duodecim  progressus  est,  he  advanced  twelve  miles 
umbilicus  septem  pedes  longus.  a  projection  seven  feet  long 
fossam  quindecim  pedes  la  tarn  perdiixit,  he  made  a  ditch  ff teen  feet  wide 
porta  aberat  viginti  passiis,  the  gate  was  twenty  paces  away 

Note.    For  the  genitive  of  measure  see  §  340. 


ACCUSATIVE  OF  EXTENT  AND  DURATION       195 

422.  The  accusative  t)f  duration  of  time  answers  the  question 
h(nv  long? 

regnum  multos  annos  obtinuerat,  /le  had  held  the  sovereignty  for  many 

years 
dies  quindecim  iter  fecerunt,  they  marched  for  Jifteen  days 
haec   magnam  partem  aestatis   faciebant,   they  continued  to  do  this 

during  a  great  part  of  the  summer 

a.  Age  is  expressed  by  the  past  participle  natus  {bom')  used  with 
the  accusative,  sometimes  with  the  ablative. 

puer  decern  annos  {annis)  natus  mortuus  est,  the  hoy  died  at  the  age  of 
ten  years. 

423.  Duration  of  time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  accusative 
witli  per  or  by  the  ablative  without  a  preposition. 

ludi  per  decern  dies  facti  sunt,  games  were  held  for  ten  days 

ed  totd  nocte  continenter  ierunt,  they  marched  without  a  halt  during 

that  entire  night 
continenter  horls  quingue  pugnatum  est,  the  battle  raged  continuously 
forfi<e  hours 

Notp:.   The  ablative  in  this  use  really  designates  the  period  rather  as 
time  within  which  (§492.  2)  than  as  time  how  long. 

424.  Duration  of  time  may  be  expressed  by  the  accusative  singular 
of  a  noun  with  an  ordinal  numeral. 

regnat  iam  sextum  annum,  he  has  reigned  going  on  six  years  (lit.  he  is 
reigning  now  the  sixth  year) 

425.  With  abhinc,  ago,  either  the  accusative  of  duration  of  time  or 
the  ablative  of  the  measure  of  difference  (§  475)  may  be  used. 

abhinc  annos  tres  or  abhinc  tribus  annis,  three  years  ago 

426.  The  accusative  of  a   neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  of 
quantity  may  denote  the  degree  of  an  action  or  quality. 

plurimum  potest,  he  is  most  po7verful 

multum  sunt  in  venationibus,  they  are  much  occupied  in  hunting 

quid  in  bello  possunt.  how  strong  are  they  in  war  ? 


196         ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  PLACE  WHITHER 

Note  i.  Other  accusatives  so  used  are  aliquid,  quicquam,  plus, 
tantum,  quantum.  Some  regard  these  as  accusatives  of  kindred  meaning 
(§  41 1)  or  as  adverbial. 

Note  2.    For  measure  of  difference  expressed  by  the  ablative  see  §  475. 

Accusative  of  Respect 

427.  The  accusative  is  sometimes  used  with  a  verb  or  adjec- 
tive to  denote  that  in  7'espect  to  zvhich  a  statement  is  made. 

This  construction,  borrowed  from  Greek,  is  used  chiefly 
in  poetry,  and  is  confined  mainly  to  (a)  nouns  denoting  birth], 
mind,  ox  parts  of  the  body,  and  {b)  neuter  plural  adjectives,  such 
as  alia,  cetera,  cuncta,  omnia,  etc. 

The  following  are  examples  from  Vergil : 

Cressa  genus,  Pholoe,  a  Cretan  by  (in  respect  to)  birth,  Pholoe 
animum  arrecti,  aroused  in  (in  respect  to)  mind  or  spirit 
oculos  suffecti,  wit/i  eyes  suffused  (suffused  as  to  eyes) 
nuda  germ,  luith  her  knee  baj-e  (bare  as  to  her  knee) 
OS  umerosque  deo  similis,  /;/  Jace  and  shoulders  like  a  god 
cetera  Grains,  in  other  ?'espects  a  Greek 

Note.  This  construction  is  sometimes  called  the  synecdochical  or  Greek 
accusative. 

Accusative  of  the  Place  Whither 

428.  The  place  whither  is  regularly  expressed  by  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  preposition  ad,  in,  or  sub. 

Haedui  legatos  ad  Caesarem  mittunt,  the  Hcedui  send  ambassadors  to 
CcBsar 

in  AUobrogum  finis  exercitum  ducit,  he  leads  the  army  into  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Allobroges 

exercitum  sub  iugum  mittunt,  they  send  the  army  under  the  yoke 

429.  With  fhe  name  of  a  cotmtry  ad  denotes  to  the  borders ;  in 
with  the  accusative,  into  the  country  itself. 

ad  lialiam  iter  fecit,  he  marched  to  Italy 
in  Italiam  iter  fecit,  he  marched  into  Italy 


ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  PLACE  WHITHER  197 

430.  The  preposition  with  the  place  whither  is  regularly 
omitted  with  names  of  towns  and  small  islands  ;  domus,  home  ; 
and  riis,  conntr}', 

ibd  Athenas,  I  shall  go  to  Athens 

ille  se  Massiliam  conferet,  he  will  betake  himself  to  Marseilles 

Romam  ad  senatum  veni,  /  ca/ne  to  Rome  to  the  senate 

Delum  venit,  he  came  to  Delos 

domum  redierunt,  they  returned  home 

suas  domos  abienint,  they  went  away  to  their  homes 

Tus  ib6,  /  shall  go  into  the  country 

Note.  The  expression  of  the  place  whither  by  the  accusative  without 
a  preposition  was  the  original  construction  and  follows  from  the  funda- 
mental notion  of  that  case  (§  402).  The  prepositions,  originally  adverbs, 
were  afterwards  added  to  define  more  exactly  the  direction  of  motion,  and, 
by  long  association,  became  indispensable  except  as  indicated  above.  The 
English  home  in  '*  I  am  going  home  "  is,  like  domum,  an  old  accusative  of 
the  goal  or  ///////  of  motion. 

431.  The  preposition  ad  is  used  with  names  of  towns  and  small 
islands  to  denote  toivards,  to  the  vicinity  of  in  the  vicinity  of. 

ad  Alesiam  proficlscuntur,  they  set  out  for  Alesia 

ad  Gendvam  pcrvenit,  he  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Geneva 

432.  The  accusatives  urbem  and  oppidum  expressing  the  plaa 
whither  require  the  preposition  even  when  the  name  of  the  town 
accompanies  them. 

ad  urbem  Romam  venit,  he  came  to  the  city  of  Rome 

433.  When  dOmus  mean's  a  house  or  building,  the  preposition  is  used. 
in  Laecae  domum  venisti,  you  cnme  to  Lctca^s  house 

434.  The  poets  and  later  writers  often  omit  the  preposition  when 
it  would  be  required  in  classic  prose. 

Italiam  Laviniaque  vSnit  ntora  (VergilX  he  came  to  Italy  and  the 

I.avinian  shores 
devengre  locos  laetOs  (Vergil),  they  reached  the  happy  spots 
Aegypium  proficiscitur  (TacitusX  he  sets  cut  for  Egypt 


198         IDIOMATIC  USES  OF  THE  ACCUSATIVE 

435.  The  preposition  is  not  used  with  the  supine  in  -um  (§  882. 1), 
which  is  in  reality  an  accusative  of  the  place  whither,  nor  in  the 
following  old  phrases : 

infitias  ire,  to  resort  to  denial  venum  dare,  to  sell 

pessum  dare,  to  ruin  venum  ire,  to  be  sold 

suppetids  ire  (venire,  mittere,  etc.),  logo  (come,  send,  etc.)  to  (any  one's)  aid 

Accusative  of  Exclamation 

436.  The  accusative  is  used,  especially  with  interjections, 
in  exclamations. 

0  fortiinatam  rem  pUblicam.  O  fortuftate  republic  ! 
en  quattuor  drds,  lo,  four  altars  / 
pro  deum  fidem,  good  heatietis  ! 
me  miserum,  ah,  wretched  me .' 

437.  The  interjections  ecce  and  em  {lo!  behold!  see!)  often  combine 
with  the  accusative  of  is  or  ille,  giving  rise  to  such  forms  as  eccum 
(ecce  eum),  eccam  (ecce  earn),  eccos  (ecce  eos),  eccillum  (ecce  ilium), 
ellum  (em  ilium),  etc. 

Idiomatic  Uses  of  the  Accusative 

438.  The  following  uses  of  the  accusative,  adverbial  in 
character,  are  of  doubtful  origin. 

bonam  partem,  ///  a  great,  jneasure 

meam  (tuam,  suam,  etc.)  partem, yi?r  7/iy  {your,  his,  etc.)  part 

maiorem  (maximam)  partem,  for  the  greater  {most)  part 

nihil,  not  at  all 

id  (hoc)  aetatis,  at  that  {this)  age 

id  (hoc)  temporis,  at  that  {this)  time 

id  (quod)  genus,  of  that  {what)  sort 

meam  (tuam,  suam,  etc.)  vicem,  on  tny  {your,  his,  etc.)  part 

virile  (muliebre)  secus,  of  the  male  {fe7nale)  sex 

dextrum,  on  the  right 

laevum,  on  the  left 

quod  si,  but  if 

quid,  why 

For  the  accusative  with  prepositions  see  §  276. 


ABLATIVE  OF  SEPARATION 


199 


I.  True  ablative — from  casit 


THE  ABLATIVE  CASE 

439.  The  Latin  ablative  includes  the  functions  and  in  part 
the  forms  of  three  original  cases  :  the  true  ablative,  or  from 
case,  denoting  separation  ;  the  instrumental,  or  xvith  (or  by)  case, 
denoting  association,  means,  or  instrument ;  and  the  locative,  or 
/;/  case,  denoting  the  place  in  time  or  space.  On  this  basis  the 
uses  of  the  Latin  ablative  are  divided  into  three  classes  as  follows :  ^ 

1 .  Ablative  of  separation  (§  440) 

2.  Ablative  of  the  place  whence  (§  441) 

3.  Ablative  of  comparison  (§  446) 

4.  Ablative  of  origin  (§451) 

5.  Ablative  of  material  (§  452) 
,6.  Ablative  of  agent  (§  453) 

'  I.  Ablative  of  accompaniment  (§  456) 

2.  Ablative  of  attendant  circumstance  (§  457) 

3.  Ablative  of  accordance  (§  458) 

4.  Ablative  of  manner  (§  459) 

5.  Ablative  of  cause  or  reason  (§  462) 

6.  Ablative  of  description  or  quality  (§  466) 

a.  Ablative  of  price  or  value  (§  470) 

b.  Ablative  of  the  way  by  which  (§  474) 

c.  Ablative  of  the  measure  of  difference 

(S  475) 

8.  Ablative  of  respect  (§  478) 

9.  Ablative  absolute  (§  480 ) 
Ablative  of  place  where  (§  485) 

2,  Ablative  of  time  (§  492) 


II.  Instrumental 

ablative  —  with 

(or  by)  case 


7.  Ablative  of 
means  (§  468) ' 


111.  Locative  ablative  —  ///  case 


{^: 


L  True  Ablative  Uses 

440.  Ablative  of  Separation.  The  ablative  of  separation  — 
sometimes  with,  sometimes  without,  a  preposition  —  is  used 
in  connection  with  verbs  or  adjectives  denoting  separation, 
deprivation,  freedom  from,  and  the  like. 

*  The  three  original  cases,  despite  their  radical  difference  in  meaning,  had 
many  points  of  conuct,  and  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  among  them.  Too 
great  a  degree  of  certainty  should,  therefore,  not  be  attached  to  this  classitication. 


200  ABLATIVE  OF  THE  PLACE  WHENCE 

a.  A  preposition  (a,  ab,  de,  e,  ex)  is  used  (i)  regularly  before  nouns 
denoting  persons,  (2)  generally  when  the  separation  is  actual  2X\A  literal. 

Gallos  ab  Aquitanis  Garumna  flumen  dividit,  the  Garonne  river  sepa- 
rates the  Gauls  fro  tn  the  Aquitani 
oppidum  vacuum  ah  defensoribus,  a  town  stripped  of  defenders 
hostem  a  pugna  prohibebant,  they  kept  the  enemy  frojft  battle 
a  cultu  provinciae  longissime  absunt,  they  are  farthest  away  from 

the  civilizatio7i  of  the  p?'ovince 
anulum  de  digito  detraxit,  he  drew  the  ringfrofn  his  finger 
Messana  ab  his  rebus  vacua  atque  nuda  est,  Messa?ia  is  e?npty  a7id 
bare  of  these  things 

b.  The  preposition  is  generally  not  present  when  the  separation 
is  figurative,  especially  if  the  verb  or  adjective  itself  contains  a 
separative  preposition. 

Helvetii  ea  spe  deiecti,  the  //elvetii,  deprived  of  that  hope 
Ariovistus  pertindcid  desistit,  Ariovistiis  desists  from  his  obstinacy 
levamur  superstitione,  liberamur  mortis  metu,  we  are  relieved  from 

superstition,  we  are  freed  from  fear  of  death 
senectus  voluptdtibus  caret,  old  age  lacks  enjoyments 
condtu  desistunt,  they  desist  from  the  attempt 
auxilio  eget,  he  needs  help      . 
immunis  militia,  free  of  military  service 

Note.  There  are  numerous  exceptions  to  these  rules,  especially  in 
poetry,  and  many  verbs  take  or  omit  the  preposition  with  no  apparent 
distinction.    Compare  the  following  examples : 

ex  cwitdte  excesserunt,  i^ey  depaj-ted from  the  state 
finibus  suis  excesserant,  they  had  left  their  <nvii  territojy 
hostis  ab  oppidis  prohibent,  they  keep  the  enemy  from  the  towns 
snls  finibus  eos  prohibent,  they  keep  them  from  their  own  territory 

441 .  Ablative  of  the  Place  Whence.  The  ablative  with  ab,  de, 
or  ex  is  used  to  denote  the  place  whence. 

ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city 

de  finibus  suis  exeunt,  they  go  forth  from  their  territory 

legiones  ex  hibemis  ediicit,  he  leads  the  legions  out  frotn  their  winter 

quarters 
ex  Britannia  obsides  miserunt,  they  sent  hostages  from  Britain 
negotiator  ex  Africa  venit,  a  merchant  is  coming  from  Africa 


ABLATIVE  OF  THE  PLACE  WHENCE  20i 

442.  With  names  of  towns  and  small  islands  and  with 
domus,  home,  and  rts,  country ,  the  place  whence,  after  verbs  of 
motion,  is  denoted  by  the  ablative  without  a  preposition. 

Roma  ex  urbe  ndbill  profectus  est,  /le  set  out  from  Rome,  a  famous  city 
Delo  navigavit,  lie  sailed  from  Delos  (a  small  island) 
domb  abit,  he  leaves  (goes  from)  home 
rure  revertit,  he  returned  from  the  country 

Note.   When  domua  means  a  building,  the  preposition  is  used. 

a.  With  names  of  towns  and  small  islands  ab  is  used  to  denote 
from  the  vicinity  of 

a  Mutina  discessit,  he  withdrew  from  the  vicinity  of  Modcna 

443.  The  words  urbs,  oppidum,  and  insula,  either  standing  alone 
or  in  apposition  with  a  geographical  name,  require  a  preposition  to 
express  the  place  whence. 

ab  (ex)  urbe,  from  the  city 

ah  (ex)  mhe  Roma.,  from  the  city  of  Rome 

444.  In  expressing  iht  place  whence  poets  and  later  writers  often 
omit  the  preposition  when  it  would  be  required  in  classical  prose. 

Tr5as  arcebat  longe  Latio  (Vergil),  she  kept  the   Trojans  far  from 

Latiujn 
Scythid  profecti  (Q.  Curtius),  setting  out  from  Scythia 

445.  By  a  difference  of  idiom  the  place  where  is  sometimes 
regarded  in  Latin  as  the  direction  from  which,  and  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative  with  ab  (rarely  ex). 

Orgetorix  ex  vxncuUs  causam  dicit,  Orgctorix  pleads  his  cause  in  chains 

a.  So  in  the  following  expressions : 

&  fronte,  in  front  a  sinistri,  on  the  left 

a  terg5.  in  the  rear  ab  hac  parte,  on  this  side 

a  dextra,  on  the  right  k  latere,  on  the  side 

ab  noTissimd  agmine.  on  the  rear 


202  ABLATIVE  OF  COMPARISON 

446.  Ablative  of  Comparison.  TJia7i  after  the  comparative 
degree  may  be  expressed  by  the  ablative  of  comparison  or  by 
the  particle  quam.  With  quam  the  two  things  compared  are  in 
the  same  case. 

Cato  est  Cicerone  eloquentior,  Cato  is  more  eloquent  than  Cice?'o 
Ubii  sunt  ceteris  humani5res,  the  Ubii  are  more  civilized  than  the  ?'est 
Caesar  militum  vitam  sua  salute  cariorem  habet,  Ccesar  holds  the  li7>es 

of  his  soldiers  dearer  than  his  own  safety 
Caesar  minor  est  quam  Cicero,  CcEsar  is  younger  than  Cicero 

Note.  The  ablative  of  comparison  is  a  form  of  the  ablative  of  separa- 
tion, the  first  example  above  meaning  literally,  reckoning  from  Cicero  as  a 
standard,  Cato  is  more  eloquent. 

a.  The  construction  with  quam  is  required  where  the  first  of  the 
things  compared  is  not  in  the  nominative  or  accusative. 

est  misericordia  dignior  quam  contumelia,  he  is  more  worthy  of  pity 
than  of  disgrace.    [Here  the  ablative  is  due  to  dignus  (§  479).] 

6.  The  comparative  adverbs  citius  and  celerius  are  followed  by 
the  ablative  of  comparison. 

dicto  citius,  soofier  than  you  could  tell  it  (lit.  said) 
opinione  celerius,  sooner  than  was  expected  (lit.  expectation) 

447.  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  ablative  of  comparison  where 
the  prose  construction  requires  quam  (§  446.  a^. 

pane  egeo  iam  mellitis  potiore  placentis  (Horace),  /  now  want  brea^ 
rather  than  honey  cakes.  [Here  the  ablative  pane  depends  on 
egeo  (§  469.  d).'] 

448.  The  ablative  of  comparison  is  regular  in  negative  sentences, 
nihil  est  foedius  servitute,  nothing  is  viler  than  slavery 

449.  Tha7i  followed  by  a  relative  pronoun  with  a  definite  ante- 
cedent is  never  expressed  by  quam,  but  by  the  ablative  of  the  relative. 

rex  erat  Aeneas  nobis,  quo  iiistior  alter  non  fuit,  Apneas  was  our  king, 

than  wJiom  no  other  was  mo?e  righteous 


ABLATIVE  OF  MATERIAL  203 

450.  After  the  comparatives  plus,  minus,  amplius,  and  longius, 
when  used  without  quam,  the  noun  usually  takes  the  case  required 
by  the  context,  without  reference  to  the  comparative. 

hostes  ndn  amplius  octingentds  equites  habebant,  /Ae  enemy  had  no 

more  than  eii^ht  hundred  horsemen 
plus  septingenti  capti  sunt,  /nore  than  seven  hundred  were  captured 

451.  Ablative  of  Origin.  The  ablative,  generally  without  a 
preposition,  is  used  with  nascor,  be  borti,  and  with  the  parti- 
ciples nitus,  ortus,  and  a  few  others  of  similar  meaning,  to 
denote  parentage  or  origin. 

amplissimS  genere  natus,  dorft  of  a  7>ery  noble  family 

summ5  *n  Arvernis  ortus  loco^  sprung  from  the  highest  station  among 

the  .  In'i'rni 
Maecenas  edite  regibus,  O  Maecenas,  descendant  of  kings 
quo  sanguine  crStus,  bom  of  what  blood  ? 

a.  A  preposition  (generally  ex)  is  regularly  used  with  pronouns 
and  sometimes  with  nouns. 

ex  me  hie  natus  n6n  est  sed  ex  fratre  meo,  this  is  not  my  son,  but  my 

brother  s  (not  born  from  me,  etc.) 
cum  ex  utraque  uxore  fflius  natus  esset,  when  a  son  had  been  bom  of 

each  7L'ife 

452.  Ablative  of  Material.  The  ablative,  usually  with  ex  (in 
poetry  often  with  dfi),  is  used  to  denote  the  material  of  which 
anything  consists  or  is  made. 

naves  factae  sunt  ex  robore,  the  ships  were  made  of  oak 
scuta  ex  cortice  facta,  shields  made  of  bark 
valvae  ex  auro  atque  ehore,  doors  of  gold  and  ivory 
templum  de  marmore  ponam,  77/  build  a  temple  of  marble 

a.   In  poetry  the  preposition  is  often  omitted. 

scopulis  pendentibus  antrum  (Vergil),  a  cave  of  overhanging  rocks 
aere  cav6  clipeus  (Vergil),  a  shield  of  hollow  bronse 


204  ABLATIVE  OF  AGENT 

b.  The  ablative  of  material  without  a  preposition  is  used  with 
facere,  fieri,  and  similar  words,  in  the  sense  of  {/o  with^  become  of. 

quid  hoc  homine  facialis,  what  are  you  going  to  do  with  this  fellow  ? 
quid  Tulliola  mea  f  let,  what  will  becotne  of  my  dear  Tullia  ? 

Note.  The  ablative  of  material  is  a  development  of  the  ablative  of 
origin.    For  the  genitive  of  material  see  §  348. 

453.  Ablative  of  Agent.  The  ablative  with  a  or  ab  is  used 
with  a  passive  verb  to  denote  the  personal  agent. 

a  sendtu  amicus  appellatus  erat,  he  had  been  called  frietid  by  the 

senate 
exercitus    ab  Helvetiis  pulsus    est,    the   army  was   defeated  by  the 

Helvetii  • 

laudatur  ah  hls^  culpatur  ah  illis,  he  is  praised  by  these,  blamed  by 

those 
ah  non  nuUis  GalTis  sollicitabantur,  they  were  incited  by  some  (of  the) 

Gauls 

Note  i.  The  ablative  of  agent  is  a  development  of  the  ablative  of 
origin.  The  preposition  a  meant  from  to  the  Roman  mind,  not  by,  as  it  is 
translated  in  English. 

Note  2.  The  ablative  of  agent  (which  requires  a  or  ab)  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  the  ablative  of  means,  which  has  no  preposition 
(§  468).  Thus,  occisus  gladio,  slain  by  a  sword-,  but  occisus  ah  hoste,  slain 
by  an  enemy. 

454.  Things  personified  and  sometimes  names  of  animals  are 
found  in  the  construction  of  the  agent. 

vitia  a  virtutihus  superantur,  vices  are^  overco?ne  by  virtues 

455.  If  the  person  acting  is  regarded  as  the  means  rather  than  as 
the  agent,  the  accusative  with  per  is  generally  used. 

per  exploratores  Caesar  certior  factus  est,   Caesar  was  infonned  by 
(means  of)  scouts 

Note.  When  the  action  is  stressed  rather  than  the  persons  acting,  the 
ablative  is  used  without  a  or  ab. 

cena  ministratur  tribus  puens,  dinner  is  served  by  three  slaves 


ABLATIVE  OF  ACCORDANCE  205 

II.  Instrumental  Ablative  Uses 

456.  Ablative  of  Accompaniment.  The  ablative  with  cum  is 
used  to  denote  accompaniment. 

Caesar  cum  legionibus  tribus  profectus  est,  Casar  set  out  with  three 

lei^ions 
Helvetii  cum  Germanis  contendunt,  the  Helvetii fight  with  the  Germans 

Note.  The  ablative  of  accompaniment  may  be  used  with  words  of 
contention  and  the  like.    See  the  second  example  above. 

a.  In  some  military  expressions  cum  may  be  omitted,  especially 
when  the  ablative  is  modified  by  any  adjective  not  a  numeral 

omnibus  cdpiis  subsequebatur,  he  folloiued  close  with  all  his  forces 

457.  Ablative  of  Attendant  Circumstance.  The  ablative,  some- 
times with  cum  but  more  usually  without,  is  used  to  denote  an 
attendant  circumstance  or  situation. 

ezercitum  duarum  cohortium  damno  deducit,  he  leads  back  his  army 

with  the  loss  of  t7uo  cohorts 
ex  oppido  sUentio  egressi  sunt,  they  went  forth  from  the  town  in  silence 
his  ominibus  proficiscere  ad  impium  bellum,  attended  by  these  omens 

go  forth  to  your  impious  war 
nemo  funera  fletu  faxit,  let  no  one  perform  my  funeral  rites  with  tears 
Liscus  intellegit  quanto  cum  periculo  id  fecerit,  Liscus  understands 

with  how  much  danger  he  has  done  this 

458.  Ablative  of  Accordance.  That  in  accordance  with  which 
something  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  ablative,  usually  without 
a  preposition,  sometimes  with  ex  or  d6. 

moribus  suis  Orgetorigem  ex  vinculls   causam   dicere   coSgSrunt,  in 

accordance  with  their  customs  they  compelled  Orgetorix  to  plead 

his  cause  in  chains 
consuetudine  sua  Caesar  sex  legi5nes  expeditas  ducSbat,  according  to 

his  custom  Ccesar  was  leading  six  legions  in  fighting  trim 
tuo  consilid  faciam,  /  will  act  in  accordance  with  your  plan 
haec  ex  senatus  cdnsulto  acta  sunt,  this  was  done  in  accordance  with 

the  decree  of  the  senate 


2o6  ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE  OR  REASON 

459.  Ablative  of  Manner.  The  manner  of  an  action  is  denoted 
by  the  ablative  with  cum.  * 

magno  cum  strepitu  ac  tumultU  castris  egressi  sunt,  'with  great  uproar 

and  confusion  they  ivetit  fo7'th  from  the  cainp 
pars  nuntiorum  cum  crucidtu  necabatur,  part  of  the  messengers  were 

killed  with  torture 

Note.  The  ablative  of  manner,  the  ablative  of  attendant  circumstance, 
and  the  ablative  of  accordance  are  so  closely  related  that  they  cannot  be 
sharply  distinguished. 

460.  With  the  ablative  of  manner  the  preposition  cum  may  be 
omitted  when  the  noun  is  modified  by  an  adjective. 

flumen  incredibiti  Imitate  fluit,  the  river  flows  with  incredible  slowness 
nUdo  corpore  pugnant,  they  fight  with  body  exposed 

461.  The  preposition  cum  is  not  used  with  such  words  of  manner 
as  modo,  pacto,  ratione,  ritu,  vi,  via,  nor  with  certain  nouns  that  have 
become  virtually  adverbs,  as,  iure,  iniuria,  iussu,  iniussu,  merito, 
sponte,  pace  tua,  etc. 

pecudum  nfiJ,  in  the  maimer  of  beasts 

iure  an  iniUrid,  rightly  or  wrongly 

pdce  tud  dixerim,  /  should  like  to  say,  with  your  permission 

Note.    This  usage  has  been  much  extended  in  poetry. 

insequitur  ci/muZo  aquae  mons  (Vergil),  a  mountain  of  rvater follows  in 
a  mass 

462.  Ablative  of  Cause  or  Reason.  Cause  or  reason  is  denoted 
by  the  ablative,  sometimes  without  a  preposition,  sometimes 
with  ab,  de,  or  ex. 

magno  doldre  adficiebantur,  they  were  affected  with  great  sorrow 
nemo  maeret  suo  incommodo,  no  one  mourns  over  his  own  misfortune 
Dumnorix  grdtid  plurimum  poterat,  Dumnorix  had  great  power  be- 
cause of  his  influence 
regni  cupiditdte  adductus  coniurationem  fecit,  tnoved  by  his  desire  for 

royal  power,  he  made  a  conspiracy 
sua  victoria  insolenter  gloriabantur,  they  boasted  insolently  of  their 
victory 


AHLATIVE  OF  DESCRIPTION  OR  QUALITY       207 

mare  d  sole  lucet,  //te  sea  gleams  in  the  sun  (from  the  sun) 

qua  de  causa,  for  this  reason 

ex  vulnere  aeger,  disabled  by  a  wound  (from  a  wound) 

Note.  The  causal  uses  of  the  ablative,  esf)ecially  those  without  a  prepo- 
sition, originate  largely  in  its  instrumental  use ;  but  where  ab,  de,  or  ex  is 
employed,  the  construction  seems  to  go  back  to  the  true  ablative  (§  439). 

463.  The  ablatives  causfi  and  grStifi  {because,  for  the  sake)  are 
used  with  a  genitive  preceding  (§  331.  n.)  or  with  a  pronominal 
adjective  in  agreement. 

amicitiae  causa, /or  the  sake  of  friendship 
ea  causa,  o/i  account  of  this 
mea  gratia,  for  my  sake 

464.  Cause  is  often  expressed  by  ob  or  propter  with  the  accusative. 
ob  cam  rem,  for  that  reason 

quam  ob  rem,  on  which  account 

pecora  propter  bellum  remdverant,  they  had  removed  their  cdt tie  be- 
cause of  the  war 

465.  A  preventing  cause  is  expressed  by  prae  with  the  ablative. 

s51em  prae  iacul5rum  multitudine  n5n  videbitis,  you  will  not  see  the 
sun  for  the  number  of  darts 

466.  Ablative  of  Description  or  Quality.  The  ablative  with 
a  modifying  adjective  is  used  to  desctibe  a  substantive. 

mulier  eximid  pulchritudine,  a  woman  of  rare  beauty 
vir  summo  ingenid.  a  man  of  the  greatest  genius 
m5ns  magna  altitudine,  a  mountain  of  great  height 
litterae  hoc  exempio,  a  letter  of  this  tenor 

Note.  It  is  impossible  to  differentiate  sharply  between  the  genitive 
and  the  ablative  of  description.    For  a  broad  distinction  see  §  338.  .\. 

467.  The  ablative  of  description  is  frequently  in  the  predicate. 

animb  meliore  sunt  gladiatores,  the  gladiators  are  of  a  better  mind 
Germani  ingenti  magnitudine  corporum  sunt,  the  Gertnans  are  of  great 

size  of  body 
capillo  sunt  promisso,  they  have  long  hair 
magno  timore  sum,  /  aw  greatly  terrifed 


2o8  ABLATIVE  OF  MEANS 

468.  Ablative  of  Means.  The  ablative  is  used  without  a  prep- 
osition to  denote  the  means  by  which  something  is  done. 

una  pars  flumine  continetur,  one  part  is  bounded  by  the  river 

his  rehus  adducti,  induced  by  these  things 

eum  mam  sua  occidit,  he  killed  him  with  his  own  hand 

Note.  Means^  cause^  manner^  and  accompanime?it  are  all  outgrowths 
of  the  same  fundamental  notion,  and  are  so  closely  related  that  they  are 
often  difficult  to  discrirrrinate.  Indeed,  the  Romans  themselves  can  hardly 
have  thought  of  any  sharp  distinction. 

469.  The  ablative  of  means  includes  the  following  special 
uses. 

a.  The  deponents  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  several  of 
their  compounds  govern  the  ablative. 

Star  vestra  benignitate,  I  will  avail  myself  of  your  kindness  (lit.  /  will 

serve  ntyself  by  your  kindness) 
Caesar  isdem  ducibus  usus  est,  CcEsar  employed  the  same  guides 
lux  qua.  fruimur,  the  light  which  we  enjoy  (lit.  the  light  by  which  we 

enjoy  ourselves) 
mUneribus  corporis  fungi,  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  body  (lit.  to 

busy  oursek'cs  with  the  fjinctiojts  of  the  body) 
impedimentis  castrisque  nostri  potiti  sunt,  our  soldiers  took  possession 

of  the    baggage   and  camp   (lit.   ojir  soldiers  tnade   themselves 

masters  by  means  of  the  baggage  and  camp) 
lacte  et  came  vescebantur,  they  fed  on  milk  and  meat  (lit.  they  fed 

themselves  by  means  of  milk  and  meat) 

Note  i.    Potior  sometimes  takes  the  genitive. 

totlUS  Gattiae  potiuntur,  tAn'  ta^e  possession  of  the  7vhole  of  Gaul 

Note  2.  In  early  Latin  these  verbs  are  sometimes  transitive  and  take 
the  accusative;  and  in  classic  Latin  they  retain  the  personal  use  of  the 
gerundive. 

fiinctus  est  officium  (Terence),  he  performed  the  part 

modus  sit  fruendae  voluptatis,   let  there  lye  a  limit  to  the  enjoyment  of 
pleasure 


ABLATIVE  OF  PRICE  OR  VALUE  209 

b.  0pu8  est,  and  less  commonly  tisus  est,  f/t^e  is  rued^  take  the 
ablative'  • 

magistratibus  opus  est,  t/iere  is  need  0/  magistrates 

opus /ac/o  est.  there  is  need  0/  action 

nunc  viribus  usus  est,  now  there  is  need  0/ strength 

Note  i.  Opus  is  often  in  the  predicate,  with  the  thing  needed  in  the 
nominative  as  subject.  This  is  the  regular  construction  when  the  thing 
needed  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective. 

dux  nObis  et  auctor  opus  est,  we  need  a  chief  and  adviser  (lit  a  chief  atiJ 

tiih'iicr  is  necessary  for  us) 
81  quid  mihi  opus  est,  if  I  need  anything  (lit  if  anything  is  needful  to  me) 
multa  nobis  opus  sunt,  we  need  many  things  (lit  many  things  are  needful 

to  us) 

Note  2.  Opus  est  is  sometimes  used  with  the  ablative  of  a  past 
participle. 

properato  opus  erat,  there  was  need  of  haste 

c.  Contentus,  satisfied,  frgtus,  relying  on  (lit  supported)^  and  innixus, 
leaning  on,  take  the  ablative. 

contentus  sorte,  satisfied  with  his  lot 
virtute  fretus,  relying  on  his  valor 

d.  Verbs  and  adjectives  denoting  fullness  or  abundance  may  be 
used  with  the  ablative  of  means. 

aggere  fossas  explent,  they  fill  the  ditches  with  earth 

Forum  Appi  differtum  nautis.  Forum  Appii,  crowded  with  boatmen 

vita  plena  voluptatibus,  a  life  full  of  delights 

Note  i.    For  the  genidve  with  similar  expressions  see  §  350. 
Note  2,    For  means  denoted  by  per  with  the  accusative  of  personal 
nouns  see  §  455. 

470.  Ablative  of  Price  or  Value.  With  expressions  of  buy- 
ing and  selling  definite  price  or  value  is  expressed  by  the 
ablative. 

*  The  noun  Qsus  follows  the  analogy  of  the  verb  utor ;  and  opus,  originally 
a  genitive  (cf.  hoc  opus  est  this  is  of  service),  takes  the  ablative  by  an  extension 
of  the  construction  with  flsus. 


210  ABLATIVE  OF  THE  WAY  BY  WHICH 

agrum  vendidit  sestertium  sex  nulibus,  he  sold  the  land  for  six  thou- 
sand ^esterces 
istuc  verbum  vile  est  xx  minis,  that  word  is  cheap  at  twenty  mince 
triginta  minis  emi,  /  bought  it  for  thirty  mince 

Note.   The  ablative  of  price  is  a  development  of  the  ablative  of  means. 

471.  Indefinite  price  or  value,  when  expressed  by  an  adjective,  is 
regularly  denoted  by  the  genitive  (§  341) ;  but  when  expressed  by  a 
noun,  is  usually  denoted  by  the  ablative. 

quanti  earn  emit  ?    ViR  (pretio),  how  much  did  he  buy  her  for  ?  Cheap 

(lit.  at  a  low  price) 
venibunt  praesenti  pecUnid,  they  will  be  sold  for  cash 
quibus  hie  pretUs  porci  veneunt,  at  what  price  are  pigs  sold  here  ? 
Dumnorix  vectigalia  parvo  pretid  redempta  habebat,  Dumnorix  had 

bought  the  taxes  at  a  small  price 

472.  With  the  verb  muto,  exchange,  and  some  of  its  compounds, 
either  the  thi7ig  taken  or  the  thing  given  in  exchange  may  be  in  the 
ablative  of  price. 

religionem  pecUnid  commiitat,  he  barters  his  conscience  for  money 
exsilium  patria  side  mutavit,  he  took  exile  in  exchange  for  his  ?tative  latid 

473.  With  verbs  of  condemning,  the  penalty  (when  it  is  a  fine  of 
definite  amount)  is  denoted  by  the  ablative  of  price. 

Frusinates  tertia  parte  agri  damnati  sunt,  the  Frusinates  were  fined  a 
third  part  of  their  land 

tor  the  genitive  of  the  charge  see  §  336. 

474.  Ablative  of  the  Way  by  Which.  The  zvay  by  ivhich, 
after  verbs  of  motion,  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  without  a 
preposition. 

Aurelia  vid  profectus  est,  he  set  out  by  the  Aurelian  road 

via  breviore  equites  praemisi,  I  sent  forward  the  cavalry  by  a  shorter  road 

frumentum  quod  flumine  navibus  subvexerat,  the  grain  which  he  had 

brought  up  the  river  by  ships 
provehimur  pelago,  we  sail  forth  over  the  sea 

Note.  The  ablative  of  the  way  by  which  is  a  development  of  the 
ablative  of  means. 


ABLATIVE  OF  RESPECT  211 

475.  Ablative  of  the  Measure  of  Difference.  With  words 
expressing  or  implying  comparison  the  ablative  is  used  to 
denote  the  measure  of  difference. 

alterum  iter  est  multo  facilius  et  expeditios,  ///^  o/A^r  route  is  much 

easier  and  quicker 
quinque  mTlibus  passoum  distat,  //  is  Jive  miles  distant  (lit.  distant  by 

five  miles) 
nee  longd  distant  cursu,  nor  are  they  far  away  (lit.  distant  by  a  long 

course) 

Note.  The  ablative  of  the  measure  of  difference  is  a  development  of 
the  ablative  of  means. 

476.  Measure  of  difference  is  expressed  by  the  correlative  ablatives 
qu6  .  .  .  e6  (hOc)  and  quantO  .  .  .  tantO  with  comparatives,  as  in 
English  by  the  .  .  .  the. 

quo  minus  cupiditatis,  eo  plus  auctdritatis,  the  less  avarice  the  more 
authority  (lit.  by  what  the  less  of  avarice^  by  that  the  more  of 
authority) 

quanto  erat  gravior  oppugnatio,  tanto  crebriores  litterae  mittebantur. 
the  worse  the  siege  was,  the  more  frequent  letters  were  sent 

477.  The  ablative  of  the  measure  of  difference  is  often  used  with 
the  adverbs  ante  {before),  post  {after),  and  abbinc  {ago),  to  denote 
time  before  or  after. 

tribus  ante  annis.  three  years  before  (lit.  before  by  three  years) 
tribus  post  annis,  three  years  after  (lit.  after  by  three  years) 
abhinc  tribus  cmms,  three  years  ago  (lit.  ago  by  three  years) 

Note.  As  prepositions,  ante  and  post  take  the  accusative  (§  276). 
Abhinc  is  generally  followed  by  the  accusative  of  duration  (§  425). 

478.  Ablative  of  Respect.  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote 
/■;/  ivhat  respect  something  is  true. 

virtate  praecedunt,  they  excel  in  valor 
infirmiores  animo  sunt,  they  are  weaker  in  <  oumt^e 
hi  omnes  lingua,  institutis,  tigibus  inter  se  differunt.  all  these  differ  from 
each  other  in  language,  custopns,  and  laws 


212  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE 

claudus  altero  pede,  lame  m  one  foot 

maior  natu,  older  (lit.  greater  in  respect  to  birth) 

minor  natu,  younger  (lit.  less  in  respect  to  birth) 

Note.    For  the  supine  in  -u  in  this  construction  see  §  882.  II. 

479.  The  adjectives  dignus  and  indignus  usually  take  the  ablative 
of  respect.    The  genitive  occurs,  especially  in  early  Latin. 

hoc  dignum  memorid  videtur,  this  seems  woi'th  ?nention 

vir  patref  avo,  maioribus  suis  dignissimus,  a  ma?i  most  worthy  of  his 

father^  grandfather^  attd  aticestoi's 
dignus  salutis,  deserving  of  safety 

Note.    So  the  verb  dignor  in  poetry. 

hand  equidem  tali  me  dignor  honore  (Vergil),  /  do  not  deem  myself 
worthy  of  siick  an  honor 

480.  Ablative  Absolute.  The  ablative  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun with  a  participle  in  agreement  may  be  used  absolutely, 
that  is,  as  grammatically  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence. The  ablative  absolute  defines  the  time  or  circumstances 
of  the  action. 

nondum  hieme  confecta  in  finis  Nerviorum  contendit,  the  winter  not 
yet  beifig  over^  he  hastened  into  the  territory  of  the  Ner^ni 

Note.  The  ablative  absolute  is  of  instrumental  origin  ;  but  the  locative 
and  true  ablative  may  have  contributed  to  its  development. 

481.  As  the  verb  sum  has  no  present  participle,  we  often  find 
two  nouns,  or  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  in  the  ablative  absolute  with 
no  participle  expressed. 

M.  Messala  M.  Pisone  oonsulibus,  Marcus  Messala  and  Marcus  Piso 

being  consuls 
ezigua  parte  aestatis  reliqua^  a  small  part  of  the  summer  remaining 

482.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  ablative  absolute  regularly  denotes 
a  person  or  thing  not  elsewhere  mentioned  in  the  same  clause. 


ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE  2 1 3 

Compare  the  sentences : 

rhe  Gauls  ha~i'ini^  been  ionquercd  by  L\rsixt\  the  army  returned 
home.  Gains  a  Caesare  i/tcfts  exercitus  domum  rediit 

The  Gaulsy  having  been  conquered  by  Casar,  returned  home,  Galli 
a  Caesare  oicti  domum  redierunt 

rhe  ablative  absolute  is  used  in  the  first  example,  but  is  not  admis- 
sible in  the  second. 

483.  A  participle  or  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  in  the  ablative 
absolute  without  a  substantive. 

Ifbdto  summd  tenus  attigit  6re  (Vergil),  after  pouring  the  libation  she 

touched  (the  goblet)  with  her  lips 
missis  qui  iter  monstrarent,  (men)  having  been  sent  to  show  the  way 

484.  While  grammatically  independent,  the  ablative  absolute 
has  a  logical  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  and  may 
express  a  great  variety  of  relations.  This  connection  is  often 
best  expressed  in  translation  by  a  subordinate  clause,  and  should 
not  always  be  rendered  by  the  English  nominative  absolute. 
Thus,  the  ablative  absolute  may  replace  — 

a.  A  temporal  clause. 
Caesar  acceptis  litteris  nuntium  mittit,  after  Caesar  receives  the  letter 
he  sends  a  messenger 

h.  A  causal  clause. 
maiSres    nostri    saepe    mercatoribus  nostris   iniuriosius   tractatts  bclla 
gesserunt,  our  ancestors  often  waged  7c>ars  hrcausc  our  traders 
had  been  somewhat  unjustly  treated 

c.  A  concessive  clause. 

oppidum  paucis  difendentibus  expugnare  non  potuit,  though  only  a  few 
defended  the  town^  he  could  not  take  it 

d.  \  conditional  clause. 

deditidnis  nulla  est  condicio  nisi  armls  trdditis,  there  are  no  terms  of 
surrender  if  the  arms  are  not  handed  over 

€,  A  clause  denoting  attendant  circumstance. 
ea  omnia  insdentibus  Haeduis  fecit,  he  did  all  these  things  while  the 
Hcpdui  were  in  ignorance 


214  ABLATIVE  OF  THE  PLACE  WHERE 

HI.  Locative  Ablative  Uses 

485.  Ablative  of  the  Place  Where.  The  place  where  is  reg- 
ularly denoted  by  the  ablative  with  the  preposition  in. 

in  hac  urhe  vitam  degit,  he  passed  his  life  in  this  city 
in  Gallia  remanserunt,  they  remained  in  Gaul 

in  Germanorum  finibus  bellum  genint,  they  wage  war  in  the  territory 
of  the  Germans 

a.  But  the  preposition  in  is  omitted  before  names  of  towns  and 
small  islands  and  before  loco,  locis,  parte,  partibus,  dextra,  sinistra, 
laeva,  terra,  mari,  and  nouns  modified  by  totus. 

Carthagine,  at  Carthage  Curibus  (§  i  lo),  at  Cures 

Athenis  (§  80.  c\  at  Athens  terra  marique,  on  land  and  sea 

Delphis  (§  88.  a\  at  Delphi  tota  Sicilia,  in  all  Sicily 

Note.  Many  idiomatic  expressions  omit  in :  as,  periculis,  in  dajtgers ; 
mentibus,  /;/  minds ;  and  it  is  freely  omitted  in  poetry :  as,  litore  curvo 
(Vergil),  on  the  winding  shore. 

486.  The  locative  case,  denoting  the  place  ivhere,  not  dis- 
tinguished in  the  plural  from  the  ablative,  has  a  form  like  the 
genitive  with  names  of  towns  and  small  islands  in  the  singular 
of  the  first  or  second  declension. 

Romae,  at  Rotne  Corinthi,  at  Corinth 

Avarici,  at  Avaricufn  Cypri,  at  Cyprus 

487.  Names  of  towns  of  the  third  declension  are  usually  in  the 
ablative  to  denote  the  place  where,  but  a  few  locative  forms  in  -i 
are  found. 

Carthagini,  at  Carthage  Tiburi,  at  Tibur 

488.  The  following  special  nouns  have  locative  forms  like  names 
of  towns : 

animi,  in  mind  humi,  on  the  ground 

belli,  in  war  militiae,  in  military  semice 

domi,  at  home  ruiT  falso  abl.  rure).  in  the  country 

heri,  yesterday  vesperi,  in  the  evening 


ABLATIVE  OF  TIME  215 

489.  The  locative  domi  may  be  modified  only  by  a  possessive 
adjective  or  by  a  noun  in  the  genitive ;  when  it  would  be  otherwise 
modified,  the  ablative  with  in  is  used  instead. 

domi  meae,  ai  my  house 

Caesaris  domi,  at  Orsars  house 

in  Marci  splendida  domo^  at  the  fine  home  of  Marcus 

490.  Verbs  oi placing y  though  implying  motion,  take  the  abla- 
tive of  place  where.  Such  are  p6n0,  loc6,  conlocfl,  statuC,  cOnstituO,  etc. 

Plato  rationem  in  capite  posuit,  iram  in  pectore  locavit,  Piato  placed 

reason  in  tlw  Jwad  (and)  located  anger  in  the  heart 

491.  Summary  of  Constructions  of  Place,  i.  Names  of 
places  not  toivns  are  generally  put  — 

a.  In  the  accusative  with  ad  or  in  to  denote  the  place  to  which, 
exercitum  in  Italiam  duxit,  //f  /ed  an  army  into  Italy 

b.  In  the  ablative  with  ab,  d5,  or  ex  to  denote  the  place  from  which. 
ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city 

c.  In  the  locative  ablative  with  in  to  denote  the  place  at  or  in  which. 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy 

2.  Names  of  towns  and  words  which  follow  their  analogy 
are  put  — 

a.  In  the  accusative  to  denote  the  place  to  which. 

legati  Athends  missi  sunt,  ambassadors  were  sent  to  Athens 

b.  In  the  ablative  to  denote  the  place  from  which. 
Demaratus  fugit  Corintho,  Demaratus  fled  from  Corinth 

c.  In  the  locative  or  ablative  to  denote  the  place  at  or  in  which. 

Romae  ct  domi  tuae  viTcre,  to  live  at  Rome  and  in  your  home 
Athinis  eram.  /  7C'as  at  Athens 

492.  Ablative  of  Time.  Time  w/ii-n  or  wit/tin  ivhich  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  ablative,  regularly  without  a  preposition. 


2i6  ABLATIVE  OF  TIME 

1 .  Time  when  : 

secunda  vigHia  castris  egressi  sunt,  in  the  second  watch  they  went 

forth  fro )n  the  cajnp 
Diviciacus  eo  tempore  principatum  obtinebat,  Diviciacus  at  that  time 

held  the  highest  place 
Caesar  septimo  ^ie  pervenit,  CcEsar  arrived  on  the  seventh  day 

2.  Time  within  which  : 

diebus  viginti  quinque  aggerem  exstruxerunt,  within  twefityfive  days 

they  finished  building  a  mound 
hoc  toto  proelio  aversum  hostem  videre  nemo  potuit,  throughout  this 

whole  battle  no  one  could  see  an  enemy  in  retreat 
paucis  anms  omnes  ex  Galliae  finibus  pellentur,  within  a  few  years 

all  will  be  driven  fro ?n  the  territory  of  Gaul 

Note.    Titne  wit /tin  which  often  approaches  closely  to  the  idea  of 
duration  of  time  (cf.  §  423.  n.),  as  in  the  second  example. 

493.  The  preposition  in  is  often  used  with  the  ablative  of  time, 
especially  when  the  ablative  has  no  modifier. 

in  pueritia,  in  boyhood  in  adulescentia,  in  youth 

in  bell5,  in  war  bis  in  anno,  twice  a  year 

494.  Many  expressions  have  in  Latin   the   construction   of  ti?ne 
when,  where  in  English  the  idea  is  rather  that  oi  place  ivhere. 

secund5  Piinico  bell5,  in  the  second  Punic  war 
liidis  Romanis,  at  tJie  Roman  games 
pugna  Cannensi,  ///  tJie  battle  of  Cannes 

495.  In  many  idiomatic  expressions  of  time  prepositions  are  used 
with  the  accusative  or  ablative. 

cum  prima  liice,  at  dawn 

de  tertia  vigilia,  about,  the  third  watch 

sub  occasum  solis,  toward  sunset 

sub  vesperum,  toward  evening 

convenerunt  ad  diem,  they  assembled  on  the  (appointed)  day 

sub  idem  tempus,  about  the  same  time 

sub  noctem,  at  iiightfall 

in  tertium  annum,  ^r  the  third  year 

For  the  expression  of  dates  see  §  loio. 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES  217 

SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES 
CLASSIFICATION 

496.  Adjectives  are  classified  as  (a)  aitrtdutwe,  {b)  apposi- 
iive,  and  (c)  predicate. 

a.  An  Attributive  Adjective '  is  closely  attached  to  its  noun  and  is 
translated  immediately  before  it. 

vir  fortis,  a  braye  man  stellae  liicidae,  firij^A/  s/ars 

b.  An  Appositive  Adjective  explains  its  noun  like  an  appositive 
substantive,  and  is  translated  immediately  after  it. 

Laelius  sapiens  et  bonus,  Lcp/ius,  the  wise  and  good 

Orgetorix  nobilissimus  et  ditissmus  Helvetiorum,  Orgeton'x,  the  noblest 

and  richest  of  the  Helve  tit 

c.  A  Predicate  Adjective  completes  the  meaning  of  the  predicate, 
but  describes  or  limits  the  subject. 

vir  erat  fortis,  the  man  was  brave 

sit  Sclpid  clarus,  let  Scipio  be  illustrious 

Note.    The  verb  that  connects  a  noun  with  its  predicate  adjective  is 
sometimes  not  expressed. 

locum  idoneum  putavit,  Af  thought  the  place  (to  be)  suitahU.    [Here  the 
verb  esse,  to  l>f,  is  understood.] 

AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES 

497.  General  Rule.    Adjectives,  pronominal  adjectives,  and 
participles  agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  case. 

Agreement  wrrH  a  Single  Noun 

498.  An  adjective  limiting  a  single  noun  agrees  with  it  in 
gender,  number,  and  case. 

fortissimt  sunt  Belgae,  the  Belgce  are  the  bravest 

Una  pars,  one  part 

iter  angustum  et  diffidle^  a  way  narrow  and  difficult 

*  The  attributive  adjective  is  sometimes  called  the  adherent  adjective. 


2l8  AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES 

499.  Two  or  more  similar  adjectives  in  the  singular  may  limit  a 
plural  noun. 

prima  et  vicesima  legiones,  the  first  and  twentieth  legiotts 

500.  An  adjective  limiting  a  clause  or  an  infinitive  is  neuter 
singular. 

certwn  est  liberSs  amari,  //  is  certain  that  children  are  loved 

501.  Construction  according  to  Sense.  Sometimes,  especially  in 
poetry,  an  adjective  modifying  a  collective  noun  agrees,  not  with  its 
grammatical  gender  and  number,  but  with  the  gender  and  number 
conveyed  by  its  sense. 

pars  certare  paratT,  a  paii  (some)  prepared  to  contend 
multitudo  convicti  sunt,  a  multitude  were  convicted 

Agreement  with  Two  or  More  Nouns 

502.  One  adjective  limiting  two  or  more  nouns  agrees  with 
them  in  case.  Its  number  and  gender  are  determined  by  the 
following  rules : 

1.  Agreement  in  number. 

a.  A  predicate  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns  is  regularly 
plural. 

Caesar  et  Cicero  erant  clari,  Ccesar  and  Cicero  were  famous 
Sicilia  Sardiniaque  sunt  amissae,  Sicily  and  Sardinia  are  lost 

b.  An  attributive  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns  usually  agrees 
in  number  with  the  nearest. 

Caesaris  omni  gratia  et  opibus  fruor,  /  enjoy  all  Ccpsar's  favor  and 
resources 

2.  Agreement  in  gender. 

a.  An  attributive  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns  of  different 
genders  agrees  with  the  nearest. 

cunctae  terrae  mariaque  or  terrae  mariaque  cuncta,  all  lands  and  seas 
aptus  ad  frigora  et  aestus  tolerandos.  capable  of  enduring  cold  and  heat 


ADJECTIVES  USED  AS  NOUNS  219 

b.  A  predicate  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns  of  different 
genders  will  be  regularly  masculine  plural  if  the  nouns  denote  persons^ 
usually  neuter  plural  if  the  nouns  denote  things. 

pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead 
murus  et  portae  alia  erant,  the  wall  and  the  gates  were  high 

Note  i.  If  nouns  of  different  genders  include  both  persons  and  things, 
the  predicate  adjective  is  usually  neuter  plural ;  but  it  may  follow  the  per- 
sons in  gender  and  be  masculine  or  feminine,  or  may  agree  with  the  nearest 
noun  if  that  is  plural. 

natura  inimica  sunt  libera  civitas  et  rex,  by  nature  a  free  state  and  a  king 

are  hostile 
rex  regiaque  classis  profecti  sunt,  the  itinj^  and  the  royal  fleet  set  out 
legati  sortesque  oraculi  exspeciandae  sunt.  tAe  ambassadors  and  the  replies 

of  the  oracle  should  be  aicaited 

Note  2.  Two  or  more  masculine  or  feminine  abstract  nouns  denoting 
things  may  have  a  predicate  adjective  in  the  neuter  plural. 

stultitia  et  temeritas  et  iniustitia  sunt  fugienda,  folly,  rashness,  and 
injustice  are  to  be  shunned 

ADJECTIVES  USED  AS  NOUNS 

503.  Plural  adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns  {substantively) ^ 
the  masculine  to  denote  men  ov  people  in  general]  the  feminine, 
zvomcn  ;  and  the  neuter,  things. 

omnes,  all  men  (everybody)  omnia,  all  things 

maiores,  ancestors  mindres,  descendants 

Romani,  Romans  barbari,  barbarians 

nostri,  <7«r(men)  sua,  ///^/r  (possessions) 

omnes  fortia  laudant,  all  men  praise  brave  deeds 

504.  Singular  adjectives,  especially  in  the  neuter,  are  some- 
times used  as  nouns  [substantively). 

lupus  est  tfiste  stabulis,  the  wolf  is  a  griei'ous  thing  for  the  folds 

sapiens  est  rex.  the  wise  man  is  king 

mater  eius  erat  Rberta,  his  mother  was  a  freedwoman 

naves  erant  in  ariddy  the  ships  were  on  dry  land 


220  ADJECTIVES  USED  AS  ADVERBS 

505.  When  ambiguity  would  arise  from  the  substantive  use 
of  an  adjective,  a  noun  must  be  added. 

dei  potentiam  omnium  rerum  habent,  //i^  gods  have  power  over  every- 
thing. [If  rerum  were  not  expressed,  the  gender  of  omnium  would 
be  uncertain.] 

506.  Some  adjectives  have  become  nouns. 

aequalis,  a  co7iteinporary  propinqui,  relatives 

amicus,  friend '  socius,  ally 

familiaris,  intimate  friend  vicinus,  neighbor 

a.  Many  adjectives  have  become  practically  substantives  by  the 
omission  of  some  noun,  which  is  understood  from  constant  association. 

Africus  (ventus),  southwest  wind  hiberna  (castra),  winter  quarters 

September  (mensis),  September  triremis  (navis),  trireme 

patria  {ttrra),  fatherland  regia  (domus),  royal  palace 

b.  Conversely,  a  few  nouns  are  used  as  adjectives,  especially  those 
ending  in  -tor  or  -trix :  as,  victor  exercitus,  a  victorious  army ;  populus 
latg  rex,  a  people  ruling  far  a  fid  wide.    See  also  §  584. 


ADJECTIVES  USED  AS  ADVERBS 

507.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  in  Latin  where  adverbs 
would  be  used  in  English. 

Socrates  venenum  laetus  hausit,  Socrates  drank  the  poison  cheerfully 
erat  ille  Romae /regwens,  he  was  frequefitly  at  Rome 
naves  totae  ex  robore  factae,  ships  made  entirely  of  oak 

a.  The  adjectives  prior,  primus,  princeps,  postremus,  and  ultimus 
are  used  instead  of  adverbs  to  denote  the  first  or  last  in  order  of 
time. 

Hannibal  pnnceps  in  proelium  ibat,  ultimus  excedebat,  Hannibal  was 
the  first  to  go  into  battle  and  the  last  to  withdraw  (^xl.  went  firsts 
withdrew  last) 
primus  venit,  he  was  the  first  to  come 


COMPARATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES  221 

COMPARATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES 

508.  When  two  qualities  of  an  object  are  compared,  both 
adjectives  are  in  the  comparative.  When  magis  is  used,  both 
adjectives  arc  in  the  positive. 

longior  quam  latior  acies  erat,  ihe  line  was  longer  than  it  was  broad 
is  erat  disertus  magis  quam  sapiens,  he  was  more  eloquent  than  wise 

a.  Disproportion  is  expressed  by  the  comparative  with  quam  pr5 
{than  for)  and  the  ablative,  or  with  quam  ut  {than  that)  or  quam 
qui  {than  who)  and  the  subjunctive. 

maior  sum  (piam  cut  possit  fortuna  nocere,  /  am  too  great  for  fortune 
to  harm  me 

509.  The  superlative  may  be  strengthened  by  the  following 
words  :  longg,  by  far  \  quam,  as  possible ^  often  with  the  addition 
of  a  form  of  possum  ;  unus,  the  one ;  vel,  the  very^  even. 

longe  nobilissimus  fuit  Orgetorix,  Orgetorix  was  by  far  the  noblest 
carroriun  quam  maximum  numerum  coemere,  to  buy  up  the  greatest 

possible  numhcr  of  wagons 
quam  maximis  potest  itineribus  in  Galliam  contendit,  he  has/ens  into 

Gaul  by  marches  the  greatest  possible  (he  is  able) 
Ripheus,  iUstissimus  Unus  in  Teucris,  Ripheus,  the  one  most  righteous 

man  among  the  Teucri 
eo  tempore  vel  maxima  apud  regem  auctdritas  erat,  at  that  time  his 

influence  with  the  king  was  the  X'ery  greatest 

510.  The  following  adjectives,  mostly  superlatives,  denote 
a  part  of  the  object  modified  :  extrSmus,  imus  (infimus),  intimus, 
medius,  postrSmus,  primus,  reliquus,  summus,  ultimus. 

summus  mdns,  the  top  of  the  mountain 

media  urbs,  the  midst  of  the  city 

Pompeius  bellum  extrimd  hieme  apparavit,  prima  vere  suscepit,  mediS 
aestate  confecit,  Pompey  prepared  for  war  at  the  end  of  winter, 
began  it  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  and  finished  it  in  midsummer 

Note.  For  other  special  meanings  of  the  comparative  and  superlative 
ste  §  I  54.  N. 


222  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS 
PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

511.  Personal  pronouns  have  the  same  constructions  as  nouns, 
but  are  never  used  in  the  nominative  except  for  emphasis  or 
contrast. 

te  voco,  /  afn  calling  you 

quis  me  vocat  ?  Ego  te  voco,  who  is  calling  tne  ?  I  (emphatic)  am 

calling  you 
ego  certe  meum  officium  praestitero,  /  at  least  shall  have  done  my  duty 

a.  In  poetry  nos  is  sometimes  used  for  ego,  and  noster  for  meus ; 
but  vos  and  vester  are  never  used  for  tu  and  tuus. 

512.  The  Latin  has  no  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person.^ 
This  want  is  supplied  by  a  demonstrative  or  by  a  relative 
(§§531,564). 

is  coniurationem  fecit,  he  made  a  conspiracy 

qui  cum  eum  convenissent,  when  they  had  met  him 

513.  To  express  possession  the  possessive  pronominal  adjec- 
tives meus,  tuus,  noster,  vester  are  used,  and  not  the  genitive  of 
the  personal  pronouns. 

liber  meus,  my  book ;  not  liber  mei 
a.  But  nostrum  and  vestrum  may  be  used  with  omnium. 

vita  nostra,  our  lives 

vita  omnium  nostrum,  the  lives  of  us  all 

514.  The  genitives  mei,  tui,  nostri,  vestri  are  generally  objective ; 
nostrum  and  vestrum,  partitive. 

memoria  mei  tua  est  iiicunda,  your  remembrance  of  me  is  delightful 
habetis  ducem  memorem  vestri,  you  have  a  leader  tnindful  of  you 
minus  habeo  virium  quam  vestrum  utervis,  /  have  less  strength  than 

either  of  you 
pars  nostrum  mansit,  a  part  of  us  remained 

1  For  the  reflexive  sui  see  §§  517  ff. 


REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES       223 
REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

515.  Reflexive  pronouns  in  their  regular  use  stand  in  the 
predicate  and  refer  to  the  subject. 

516.  For  reflexives  of  the  first  and  second  persons  the 
obHque  cases  of  the  personal  pronouns  ego  and  tu  are  used. 
The  corresponding  possessive  adjectives  are  meus  and  tuus. 

morti  me  obtull,  /  exposed  myself  to  death 

hinc  tl  reginae  ad  limina  perfer,  betake  yourself  hence  to  the  queen's 

threshold 
vobis  novenos  vestri  similes  eligite,  p/ih  out  {for  yourseh<es)  nine  like 

yourselves 
nostram  patriam  amamus,  ive  love  our  own  country 

517.  The  reflexive  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  sui  (sibi, 
86).    The  corresponding  possessive  adjective  is  suus  (-a,  -um). 

Dumnorigem  ad  si  vocat,  he  calls  Dumnorix  to  him 

German!  e  suis  finibus  transibant,  the  Germans  were  crossing  over 

from  their  own  territories 

518.  The  reflexive  pronoun  sui  and  the  reflexive  possessive 
adjective  suus  have  two  principal  uses,  known  as  the  direct 
and  the  indirect. 

I.  Direct  Reflexivks 

519.  Sui  and  suus  as  direct  reflexives  stand  in  the  predicate 
and  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  clause  (whether  principal  or 
subordinate)  in  which  they  occur. 

miles  se  interfecit,  the  soldier  killed  himself 

miles  sud  gladio  interfectus  est,  the  soldier  was  killed  with  his  own 

sword 
si  suaque  dediderurt.  they  surrendered  themselves  and  their  possessions 
iussi    Helvetios    in    suds   fines    reverti,    /  ordered  the   Helvetii  to 

return  into  their  070N  territory 
Caesar  imperavit  hostibus  ut  si  dederent,  Orsar  ordered  the  enemy  to 

surrender  (themseh'es) 


224       REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 
II.  Indirect  Reflexives 

520.  Sui  and  suns  as  indirect  reflexives  stand  in  a  subor- 
dinate clause,  either  in  the  subject  or  predicate,  and  refer  to 
the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

sentit  quid  si/f  cives  cogitent,  he  perceives  what  his  own  fellow  citizens 

think 
petierunt  ut  sfbi  liceret,  they  begged  that  it  tnight  be  allowed  thetn 
dat  negotium  Gallis  uti  se  certiorem  faciant,  he  directs  the  Gauls  to 

inform  him 
his  Caesar  mandat  ut  ad  se  revertantur,  to  these  CcBsar  gives  orders 

that  they  retiiiii  to  him 

521.  The  use  of  sui  and  suus  as  indirect  reflexives  is  regular  when 
the  subordinate  clause  expresses  the  words  or  thought  of  the  subject 
of  the  principal  clause.  Hence  it  is  very  common  in  indirect  discourse 
(§§883ff.). 

Caesar  dixit  si  obsides  ab  eis  sM  dentur,  se  cum  eis  pacem  esse  factu- 
rum,  Ccesar  said  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  by  them  to  him^ 
he  would  make  peace  with  them 

Note.  When  the  subordinate  clause  does  not  express  the  words  or 
thought  of  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  is  is  used,  not  se,  and  eius, 
e5nim,  etc.,  not  suus,  to  refer  to  that  subject. 

522.  When  the  use  of  sui  or  suus  as  an  indirect  reflexive  would 
cause  ambiguity,  ipse  is  used  instead. 

rogavit  cur  de  sua  virtiite  aut  de  ipsms  diligentia  desperarent,  he 
asked  why  they  despaired  of  their  own  valor  or  his  vigilance 

Note.    Occasionally  is  is  used  as  an  indirect  reflexive, 

persuadent  Rauracis  uti  una  cum  eis  proficiscantur,  tJiey  perstiade  the 
Rauraci  to  set  out  witti  them 

523.  Sometimes  suus  is  used  with  the  subject  and  refers  to  an 
emphatic  word  (especially  quisque)  in  the  predicate. 

S5cratem  cives  si/f  interfecerunt,  his  own  fellow  citizens  killed  Socrates 
sua  quemque  virtiis  defendit,  his  own  valor  defends  each  one 


POSSESSIVE  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  225 

NoTK  I .  Suu8  should  not  be  used  with  the  second  of  two  subjects  or  of 
two  objects  to  refer  to  the  first.  For  example,  in  Ccrsar  and  his  legions 
are  brave ^  or  /  see  Ccrsar  and  his  legions^  the  word  his,  if  expressed  at  all, 
would  be  eius,  not  suae  or  su&s. 

Note  2.  Occasionally  the  clause  to  which  the  reflexive  really  belongs  is 
absorbed. 

studeo  sanare  sihi  ipsSs,  /  am  anxious  to  cure  these  men  for  their  man 
benefit  (i.e.  ut  sani  sibi  sint,  that  they  may  be  cured  for  themselves) 

524.  Reciprocal  action  or  relation  ("  each  other  ")  is  expressed  by 
the  reflexive  phrases  inter  nOs,  inter  vOs,  inter  sfi. 

r  nos  damus,  ive "] 
obsides  inter  \  vos  datis,yo tt    >give  hostages  to  each  other 
\^  si  dant,  they    J 

POSSESSIVE  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 

525.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  pronominal  adjectives 
agreeing  with  the  noun  to  which  they  belong. 

haec  ornamenta  sunt  mea,  these  jewels  are  mine 

526.  Possessive  adjectives,  when  attributive,  are  generally 
omitted  if  they  are  unemphatic  and  plainly  implied  in  the  context. 

ipse  cum  omnibus  copiis  e6s  sequi  coepit,  he  himself  began  to  follow 
them  with  all  Q[{\%)  forces 

527.  l^ossessive  attributive  adjectives  may  be  necessary  for 
cleartiess,  for  emphasis,  or  for  contrast.  When  used  merely 
for  clearness,  the  possessive  adjective  follows  its  noun ;  when 
expressed  for  emphasis  or  contrast,  it  regularly  precedes  its  noun. 

ipse  cum  omnibus  c5piis  mtls  eos  sequi  coepit,  he  himself  began  to 
follow  them  with  all  my  forces  (meis  expressed  for  clearness) 

ego  d5  tnto  sensu  iudico,  /  judge  by  my  own  feeling  (meS  expressed 
for  emphasis) 

Helvetil  suis  finibus  eos  prohibent  aut  ipsi  in  eorum  finibus  bellum 
gerunt,  the  Heh.ctii  keep  them  from  their  own  territory  or  them- 
selves cany  on  war  in  their  territory  (suis  expressed  for  contrast) 


226  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 

528.  Possessive  adjectives  are  often  used  substantively, 
especially  in  the  masculine  and  neuter  plural. 

Ariovistus  in  nostras  impetum  fecit,  Ariovistus  made  an  attack  upon 
our  men  (lit.  ours) 

dedite  vos  vestraque  omnia,  siwrender  yourselves  and  all  .your  posses- 
sions (lit.  yours) 

flamma  extrema  meorum,  last  flames  of  my  countrymen  (lit.  mine) 

529.  The  genitive  of  a  pronoun  or  adjective  may  be  used  to  agree 
with  the  genitive  implied  in  a  possessive  adjective.  Especially  common 
are  the  genitives  ipsius,  ipsorum,  solius,  unius,  and  omnium. 

mea  ipsius  patria,  my  own  country  (equivalent  to  the  country  of  me 

myself) 
tua  soTius  (or  UnJus)  causa,  for  your  sake  alone  (equivalent  to  for  the 

sake  of  you  alone) 
nostra  omnium  patria,  the  country  of  us  all.    [This  might  be  written 

also  nostrum  omnium  patria;  cf.  §§  345,  513.  a.] 

DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

530.  The   demonstratives    are    hie,    iste,    ille,    is,    and    idem. 

They  are  used  either  as  pronouns  or  as  pronominal  adjectives. 

531.  The  demonstrative  pronouns,  besides  their  own  special 
uses,  supply  the  lack  of  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person 
(§  512).   This  use  is  regular  in  the  oblique  cases,  especially  of  is. 

ei  fiftam  dat,  he  gives  him  his  daughter 

Caesar  et  exercitus  eius,  Ccesar  a/id  his  army  (lit.  the  army  of  him) 

obsides  ab  eis  dantur,  hostages  are  given  by  them 

hi  sunt  fortissimi,  they  are  the  bravest 

ille  minimum  poterat,  he  had  veiy  little  power 

532.  As  pronominal  adjectives  the  demonstratives  follow 
the  rules  for  the  agreement  of  adjectives  (§§  497  ff.). 

a.  A  demonstrative  usually  agrees  with  an  appositive  or  predicate 
noun,  if  there  be  one,  rather  than  with  the  word  to  which  it  refers. 

rerum  caput  hoc  erat,  hie  fons,  this  was  the  head  of  things,  this  the  source 
ea  vera  est  pietas.  that  is  true  piety 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS  227 

hiC)  iste,  ille,  is 

533.  Hie,  this,  is  used  of  what  is  near  the  speaker  in  time, 
place,  or  thought.  Hence  it  is  called  the  demonstrative  of  the 
first  person. 

luppiter  est  custSs  hui\is  urbis,  Jitpiter  is  the  guardian  of  this  city 
his  sex  diebus,  ///  ///£-  /ust  s/x  days 

534.  Hie  sometimes  refers  to  the  speaker  himself. 

noli  tradere  hunc  hominem,  do  not  betray  me  (lit.  this  man) 

535.  Iste,  tJiat  {of  yours),  is  used  of  what  is  near  the  person 
addressed  in  time,  place,  or  thought.  Hence  it  is  called  the 
demonstrative  of  the  second  person. 

miita  istam  mentem,  change  that  purpose  of  yours 

536.  From  its  frequent  application  to  the  views  of  an  opponent, 
iste  often  implies  contempt. 

iinius  usiiram  h5rae  gladiator!  isti  non  dedissem.  /  luould  not  have 
given  that  (contemptible)  g/adiator  the  enjoyment  of  a  single  hour 

537.  Hie,  that  {yonder),  is  used  of  what  is  more  or  less 
remote  in  time,  place,  or  thought,  both  from  the  speaker  and 
from  the  person  addressed.  Hence  it  is  called  the  demonstrative 
of  the  third  person. 

in  ilUs  ulterioribus  munitionibus,  ///  those  more  distant  fortifications 
ilia  pars  quam  commemoravi,  that  part  which  I  have  mentioned 

538.  Ille,  usually  following  its  noun^  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
sense  of  that  famous,  that  well-kninun. 

Medea  ilia  quondam  ex  Pont5  profiigit,  that  well-known  Medea  once 

fled  from  Pont  us 
Magnus  Ule  Alexander,  that  famous  Alexander  the  Great 

a.   In  this  sense  ille  may  be  combined  with  hie. 

hoc  iUud  est,  this  is  that  weU-known  (saying) 
hie  i7te  est,  this  is  that  famous  (man) 


228  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 

539.  Hie  sometimes  means  the  former,  and  hie  the  latter,  of  two 
objects  previously  mentioned. 

ignavia  corpus  hebetat,  labor  firmat ;  iRa  maturam  senectutem,  hie 
longam  adulescentiam  reddit,  sloth  weakens  the  body,  toil 
strengthens  it;  the  former  brings  on  premature  old  age,  the 
latter  renders  youth  long 

Note.    Less  frequently  hie  means  the  for?ner  and  ille  the  latter. 

540.  Is,  referring  to  what  is  either  near  or  more  remote,  is 
a  weaker  demonstrative  than  the  others,  and  is  especially 
common  as  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  (§  531) 
or  as  the  antecedent  of  a  relative. 

rex  aufugit ;  is  est  in  prdvincia  tua,  the  king  has  fled ;  he  is  in  your 

province 
id  quod  natura  eogit,  that  which  nature  compels 

541.  Is  in  the  sense  of  such,  of  such  a  kind,  is  followed  by  a  sub- 
junctive clause  of  description  introduced  by  qui  (§  727). 

non  is  sum  qui  mortis  perieulo  terrear,  /  am  not  such  as  to  be  terrified 
by  the  danger  of  death 

542.  Is  combined  with  et  or  atque  is  translated  and  that  too. 
vineula  et  ea  sempiterna,  chaifis  and  that  too  for  life 

543.  Hie,  ille,  and  is  may  point  either  back  to  something  just 
mentioned  or  forward  to  something  about  to  be  mentioned. 

haec  dixit,  these  things  he  said,  or  he  spoke  as  follows 

544.  The  English  word  that  in  the  phrase  that  of  is  regularly 
omitted  in  Latin.  Either  the  genitive  construction  is  continued  with- 
out the  pronoun  or  the  noun  is  repeated. 

classis  Britannorum  maior  est  quam  Gattorum  or  quam  classis  GalWntm 
(but  not  quam  ea  Gallorum),  the  fleet  of  the  Britons  is  larger  than 
that  of  the  Gauls 

Note.  In  expressions  like  him  fleeing,  those  pursuing,  etc.,  the  pro- 
noun is  left  out  in  Latin :  thus,  fugientem  (not  eum  fugientem),  seqiientes 
(not  eos  sequentes). 


THE  INTENSIVE  PRONOUN  IPSE  229 

idem 

545.  idem,  the  same,  identifies^  the  person  or  thing  in 
question  with  one  just  mentioned  or  about  to  be  mentioned. 

^dem  die,  on  the  same  day  (as  that  before  mentioned) 

546.  idem  qui  or  idem  atque  (ac)  is  translated  the  same  as. 
facia  idem  quod  semper,  you  are  doing  the  same  as  always 

xAtl.  idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered  also,  too, yet,  at  the  same  time. 

dixi  ego  idem  in  senatu.  /  also  said  in  the  senate 
6rati5  splendida  et  eadem  faceta,  an  oration  brilliant  and  at  the  same 
time  witty 

THE  INTENSIVE  PRONOUN  IPSE 

548.  Ipse,  self^  standing  either  alone  or  in  agreement  with 
another  word,  expresses  emphasis  or  contrast. 

549.  Ipse  is  used  alone,  substantively,  as  follows : 

a.  In  the  nominative  to  emphasize  an  omitted  pronoun  subject. 

ipsi  recordamini,  you  yourseh'es  remember 
ipse  eum  vidi,  /  myself  saw  him 

Note  i.  This  use  must  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  reflexive, 
especially  as  the  word  sel/  is  used  in  translating  both.  Thus,  ipse  se  lau- 
dat,  he  himself  praises  himself,  contains  both  an  intensive  and  a  reflexive. 

Note  2.  Ipse  usually  agrees  with  the  subject,  even  when  the  emphasis 
in  English  is  on  a  reflexive  in  the  predicate  :  as,  me  ipse  cSnsolor,  /  console 
myself. 

6.  In  the  oblique  ^  cases  as  an  emphatic  pronoun  of  the  third  person, 
id  erat  ip&s  gloriosum,  this  was  glorious  for  them  themselves 

c.  As  an  indirect  reflexive  pronoun  (see  §  522). 

^  Idem  is  sometimes  called  the  identifying  pronoun. 

*  The  oblique  cases  include  all  except  the  nominative  and  vocative. 


230        RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

550.  Ipse  in  agreement  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  often 
best  translated  by  very,  even,  exactly,  just,  in  person,  of  his 
own  accord. 

hoc  ipso  tempore,  at  this  very  time 
ipso  die  aderant,  they  were  present  on  the  very  day 
turpe  mihi  ipsi  videbatur,  even  to  me  it  seetned  disgraceful 
Crassus  triennio  ipso  minor  erat  quam  Antonius,  Crassus  was  Just  (or 
exactly)  th?'ee  years  yotmger  than  Antony 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

551.  Relative  pronouns  refer  to  a  substantive  called  the 
antecedent  and  connect  it  with  the  clause  which  they  introduce. 
The  relation  of  the  relative  clause  to  its  antecedent  is  an 
adjective  relation,  and  the  clause  is  regularly  subordinate. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence  hi  sunt  Galli  qui  victi  sunt,  these  are  the 
Gauls  who  were  conquered,  the  relative  qui  refers  to  Galli,  its  ante- 
cedent, and  the  relative  clause  qui  victi  sunt  is  subordinate  and  adjec- 
tive. The  adjective  relation  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  an  adjective 
may  be  substituted  for  the  relative  clause :  as,  hi  sunt  victi  Galli, 
these  are  the  conquered  Gauls. 

Agreement  of  the  Relative 

552.  A  relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender  and  number,  but  its  case  is  determined  by  its  construc- 
tion in  its  own  clause. 

legio  quam  secum  habebat,  the  legion  which  he  had  with  him 
pons  qui  ad  Genavam  erat,  the  bridge  which  was  near  Geneva 
leges  quibus  paremus,  the  laws  which  we  obey 

a.  A  relative  with  two  or  more  antecedents  follows  the  rules  for 
the  agreement  of  predicate  adjectives  (§  502). 

filius  et  filia  quos  dilexit,  the  son  and  daughter  whom  he  loved 
5tium  atque  divitiae,  quae  prima  mortales  putant,  idleness  and  wealth, 
which  7nortals  count  first  (in  importance) 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES        231 

553.  A  relative  regularly  agrees  with  a  predicate  noun  rather  than 
with  its  antecedent. 

ThSbae,  quod  est  caput,  Thebes,  which  is  the  capital.  [Here  quod 
agrees  with  caput  and  not  with  Thebae.] 

554.  The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted   into    the   case   of   its 
intccedent. 

sub  iudice  quo  nosti,  under  a  judge  whom  you  know  (quo  for  quern) 

Note.    In  poetry  the  antecedent  may  be  attracted  into  the  case  of  the 
relative. 

urhtm  quam  statud  vestra  est  (Vergil),  the  city  which  I  am  building  is 
yours 

555.  The  relative  sometimes  agrees  with  the  real  meaning  of  its 
antecedent  without  regard  to  its  grammatical  form. 

equitatus  qui  viderunt,  the  cavalry  who  saw 

556.  When  a  relative  refers  to  a  clause  or  a  whole  sentence  as  its 
antecedent,  quod,  id  quod,  or  quae  r6s  is  used. 

quod  exspectavi,  iam  sum  adsecutus,  ut  vos  omnes  factam  esse  coniu- 
rati5neni  videretis,  7L>hat  I  waited  for  I  hai'C  now  attained, 
(namely)  that  you  might  all  see  that  a  conspiracy  has  bee'n  made. 
[Instead  of  quod,  id  quod  or  quam  rem  might  have  been  used.] 

Antecedent  of  the  Relative 

557.  The  antecedent  is  often  omitted  when  it  is  general, 
indefinite,  or  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun. 

terra  reddit  quod  accepit,  the  earth  returns  what  it  has  received. 

[Antecedent  is  general.] 
sunt  9uf  dicant.  there  are  some  who  say.    [Antecedent  indefinite.] 
nostra  qui  remansimus  caede,  by  the  slaughter  of  us  who  remained. 

[Antecedent  implied  in  nostra.] 

558.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  repeated  in  the  relative  clause. 

erant  itinera  duo  quibus  itinerihus  dom5  exire  possent,  there  were  two 
routes  by  which  (routes)  they  could  leave  home 


232  SPECIAL  USES  OF  THE  RELATIVE 

559.  The  antecedent  may  stand  in  the  relative  clause,  agree- 
ing with  the  relative  in  case. 

This  arrangement  is  regular  (i)  when  the  relative  clause  is 
emphatic  and  stands  first,  or  (2)  when  the  antecedent  is  an 
appositive. 

(i)  quam  fecerat  classem,  iubet  convenire,  /le  orders  the  fleet  which  he 

had  built  to  assemble 
quas  res  gessi,  hie  versibus  attigit,  the  deeds  I  performed  he  touched 

tip  in  verse 
(2)  Roma,  quam  urbem  amo,  Rome,  the  city  that  I  love 

Note,  In  the  first  case  a  demonstrative  usually  stands  in  the  ante- 
cedent clause. 

quae  pars  civitatis  calamitatem  intulerat,  ea  princeps  poenas  persolvit, 

thai  part  of  the  state  zvhtch  had  caused  the  disaster  ivas  the  first  to  pay 
the  penalty  (lit.  what  part  .  .  .  that) 

560.  The  superlative  of  an  adjective  belonging  to  the  antecedent 
may  stand  in  the  relative  clause, 

vasa   ea  quae   pukherrima  apud  eum  viderat,   those  most  beautiful 
vessels  which  he  had  seen  at  his  house 

Special  Uses  of  the  Relative 

56L  The  relative  with  an  abstract  noun  may  be  used  in  a  paren- 
thetical clause  to  characterize  a  person,  like  the  English  such. 

quae  est  vestra  prudentia  or  qua  prudentia  es,  such  is  your  prudence 
(lit.  which  is  your  prudence  or  of  which  prudence  you  are)     • 

562.  The  relatives  qui,  quSlis,  quantus,  etc.  are  often  rendered 

simply  by  as. 

eadem  fortuna  quae,  the  sajne  fortune  as 
talis  dux  qudlis,  such  a  leader  as 

563.  The  relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin,  as  it  often 
is  in  English. 

liber  quern  mihi  dedisti,  the  book  you  gave  me 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  233 

564.  A  relative,  referring  to  an  antecedent  in  the  preceding 
sentence,  often  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  sentence  to 
connect  it  with  the  sentence  that  precedes.  It  is  then  translated 
by  a  demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun,  with  or  without  and. 

nostri  non  eadem  alacritate  utebantur.  Quod  ubi  Caesar  animadvertit 
etc.,  our  men  did  not  manifest  the  same  eagerness,  ll'/ien  C<esar 
discox'ered  this  etc. 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  {and)  since  this  is  so 

quae  qui  audiebant,  {and)  those  who  heard  this 

Note.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  connecting  relative.  A  similar  use 
of  the  relative  is  occasionally  found  within  a  sentence. 

res  loquitur  ipsa,  quae  semper  valet  plurimum,  the  fact  itseif  speaks,  and 
this  always  has  the  greatest  -iveight 

565.  The  rules  given  for  the  relative  qui  apply  in  general  also  to 
quails,  of  which  kind,  as ;  qualiscumque,  of  whatever  kind;  quicumque, 
whoever  \  and  to  relative  adverbs,  as,  ubi,  qu6,  unde,  qua  r6. 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

566.  Quis,  ivhof  interrogative  pronoun,  and  qui,  of  what  sort? 
interrogative  adjective,  are  used  to  refer  to  one  or  more  of 
an  indefinite  number  of  objects. 

quis  me  vocat,  luho  is  calling  me  ? 

qui  homo  me  vocat,  what  sort  of  man  is  calling  me  ?  • 

quae  amicitia  est,  what  kind  of  friendship  is  it  ? 

Note.  But  quia  may  be  used  as  an  adjective  instead  of  qui,  and  qui 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  substantive  for  quis. 

quis  gladiator  inveniri  potest,  what  gladiator  can  be  found? 

567.  Uter,  ivhich  f  is  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun  or 
adjective  referring  to  one  of  tivo  persons  or  things. 

in  utro  haec  virtiis  f  uit,  in  Mil5ne  an  in  C15di5,  in  which  of  the  two 
was  this  excellence,  in  Milo  or  in  Clodius  f 

568.  Other  interrcgatives  are  : 

ecquis,  any  at  all  ?  any  one  ?  any  f        quantus,  how  great  f 
qualifl,  of  what  kind?  quot  (indecl.X  how  many  ? 


234  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

569.  Indefinite  pronouns  and  adjectives  indicate  that  some 
person,  thing,  or  quaUty  is  meant,  without  closer  definition. 

570.  Quis,  substantive,  some  oiie^  aiiy  one,  and  qui,  adjective, 
somey  any^  are  the  weakest  and  vaguest  of  the  indefinites. 
They  never  stand  first  in  a  clause,  and  usually  follow  si,  nisi, 
ne,  or  num. 

si  quid  accidat,  if  anything  should  happen 

ne  quam  facultatem  dimittat,  that  he  may  not  lose  any  opportunity 

dixerit  quis,  so?ne  one  may  say 

Note.  The  distinction  between  quis  and  qui  is  not  always  maintained 
(cf.  §  566.  X.). 

571.  Aliquis,  substantive,  so>ne  one,  (at  least)  one  (as  opposed 
to  710  one),  and  aliqui,  adjective,  some  (as  opposed  to  no),  are 
rather  more  definite  than  quis,  qui. 

aliqui  ex  navi,  some/rom  the  ship 

qui  in  aliquo  numero  sunt,  who  are  of  some  account 

Note.  The  distinction  between  aliquis  and  aliqui  is  not  always 
maintained  (cf.  §  566.  n.). 

572.  Quidam,  substantive  or  adjective,  a  certain  ojie,  a  certain ^ 
implies  definite  knowledge. 

For  example,  aliqui  philosophi,  some  philosophers,  is  wholly  in- 
definite ;  but  quidam  philosophi,  certain  philosophers,  means  that  the 
philosophers  are  known  to  the  speaker  and  could  be  named  by  him 
or  otherwise  defined. 

quidam  ex  militibus  dixit,  a  certain  one  of  the  soldiers  said 

a.  The  adjective  quidam  in  the  sense  of  a  sort  of  a  kind  of  is 
often  used  to  soften  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  adjective. 

dicendi    singularis    quaedam  facultas,   a  hind  of  unique  ability  in 
speaking 


rNDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  235 

Note.  Sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  quidam  intensifies  the  force  of 
the  adjective. 

alio  quodam  modo,  ///  <;«  entirely  Jijifent  ivay 

573.  Quisquam,  substantive,  any  one  (at  all),  and  the  corre- 
sponding adjective,  GUus,  any  (at  all),  are  used  chiefly  in  nega- 
tive sentences,  in  questions  expecting  a  negative  answer,  in 
conditions,  and  in  clauses  which  follow  a  comparative. 

neque  quisquam  egredi  audet,  /wr  does  any  one  dare  to  go  forth 
ciir  quisquam  iudicaret,  w/iv  should  any  one  judge  ? 
si  quisquam  est  timidus,  is  ego  sum,  if  any  one  is  timid,  I  am  he 
neque  ulld  necessitate  continebantur,  nor  were  they  restrained  by  any 

necessity 
num  censes  ullum  periculum,  you  don't  think  there  is  any  danger, 

do  you  / 
saepius  cum  hoste  c5nflixit  quam  quisquam  cum  inimicd  concertavit, 

he  fought  more  often  with  the  enemy  than  any  one  has  contended 

with  a  personal  foe 

Note.  After  si,  nisi,  ne,  or  num,  quisquam  is  sometimes  used  instead 
of  quia,  and  is  rather  more  emphatic. 

81  quisquam,  if  any  one  (ever) 

574.  NemO,  no  one,  is  the  negative  of  quisquam,  any  one, 
and  nuUus,  no,  is  the  negative  of  ullus,  any. 

a.  NSmO  is  sometimes  used  for  nuUus  ;  so  regularly  with  adjectives 
used  substantively. 

nimd  Latinus,  no  Latin  (man) ;  not  nullus  Latinus 
nemo  dives,  no  rich  man  ;  not  niillus  dives 

b.  Niillus  is  sometimes  used  for  nSmO,  regularly  so  in  the  genitive 
and  ablative  singular  (ntillius,  nfillO) ;  and  in  the  plural  it  is  often  a 
substantive. 

nUllius  aures  violavit.  he  has  shocked  the  ears  of  no  one 

in  mild  flagrantius  studium  vidi.  ///  no  one  have  J  seen  more  ardent  zeal 

nUtlis  est  iucundior.  to  none  is  he  more  pleasing 

Note.  In  negative  commands  (§  674),  let  no  one  is  translated  by  ne  quia. 


236  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 

575.  Nescio  quis,  some  one  or  other  (lit.  /  know  not  who),  often 
expresses  contempt. 

nescio  quis  loquitur,  some  one  or  other  is  speaking 

nescio  quo  pacto,  somehow  or  other  (lit.  /  know  not  in  what  way) 

Note.  Observe  that  nescio,  when  thus  used,  does  not  change  its  form 
and  has  no  effect  on  the  construction  of  the  words  that  follow  it  (§  820). 

576.  Quisque,  substantive  or  adjective,  each  one,  each,  is 
often  used  with  pronouns,  superlatives,  ordinals,  and  with  unus, 
usually  immediately  after  them  : 

a.  With  pronouns. 

quod  cuique  obtigit,  id  quisque  teneat,  what  has  fallen  to  each,  that  let 

each  one  keep 
se  quisque  diligit,  each  one  loves  himself 
suum  cuique,  to  each  one  his  own 
milites  ad  suum  quisque  oppidum  redierunt,  the  soldier's  returned,  each 

to  his  own  town 

b.  With  superlatives. 

optimus  quisque  ei  favet,  all  the  best  7nen  (lit.  each  best  man)  favor  him 
antiquissimum  quodque  tempus,  the  ?nost  ancient  times 

c.  With  ordinal  numerals  and  unus, 

decimus  quisque  miles,  one  soldier  i?i  ten  (lit.  each  tenth  soldier) 
primo  quoque  tempore,  at  the  earliest  possible  time 
primum  quidque,  each  thing  in  order 
unus  quisque  regum,  each  one  of  the  kings 

577.  Uterque,  substantive  or  adjective,  as  distinguished  from 
quisque,  means  each  of  two. 

uterque  utrique  erat  exercitus  in  conspectu,  each  army  was  in  sight  of 

the  other  (lit.  each  to  each) 
pugnatum  est  ab  utrisque  acriter,  the  contest  was  carried  on  vigorously 

by  each  side 


PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  2^1 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 

alius  AND  alter 

578.  Alius,  ot/ier,  another,  and  alter,  the  other  (or  one  of 
two),  are  used  both  substantively  and  adjectively. 

aliud  iter  nullum  habebant,  they  had  no  other  way 

itinera  duo,  unum  per  Sequanos,  alteram  per  provinciam,  two  routes, 

one  through  the  Sequani,  the  other  through  the  proi'ince 
fuit  claudus  altero  pede,  he  was  lame  in  one  foot 

a.  Alter  is  generally  used  instead  of  secundus ;  cf .  ?5  171. 

b.  Alignus  is  used  instead  of  the  genitive  of  alius  to  express 
possession. 

aliena  domus,  another's  house 

579.  Alius  and  alter  are  often  used  in  pairs  as  correlatives  : 

alter  .  .  .  alter,  the  one  .  .  .  the  other 

alteri  .  .  .  alteri,  the  one  party  .  .  .  the  other  party 

alius  .  .  .  alius,  one  .  .  .  another 

alii  .  .  .  alii,  so/ne  .  .  .  others 

alteri  dimicsint,  alteri  yictorem  timent,  one  party  fights,  the  other  fears 
the  victor 

aliud  est  maledicere,  aliud  acciisare,  //  is  one  thing  to  slander,  another 
to  accuse 

alii  vallum  scindunt,  alii  fossam  complent,  some  tear  down  the  ram- 
part, others  fill  the  ditch 

580.  Alius  followed  by  alius  in  another  case  in  the  same 
sentence  is  used  to  express  reciprocity  of  action  or  to  express 
the  idea  that  one  does  one  thing  and  another  does  another. 

alius  ex  alio  causam  quaerit,  they  ask  one  another  the  reason 

alius  aliud  petit,  one  seeks  one  thing,  another  another  (lit.  another 

seeks  another  thing) 
alii  aliam  in  partem  fiigerunt,  some  fled  in  one  direction,  others  in 

anotfier  (lit.  others  fled  in  another  direction) 

Note.  The  adverbs  alias,  alibi,  aliS,  and  aliter  may  be  used  in  a 
similar  way. 

alias  aliSs  deSs  precamur.  -oe  proy  sometimes  to  one  god,  sometimes  to  another 


t>38  SYNTAX  OF  ADVERBS 

ceteri  and  reliqui 

581.  Ceteri  means  all  the  rest,  alljhe  others. 

Remi  frumento  ceterisque  rebus  iuvant,  the  Retni  assist  with  grain 
and  everything  else 

582.  Reliqui,  tke  reniaiiiijig,  differs  from  ceteri  in  not 
emphasizing  the  fact  that  none  is  excepted. 

reliqua  privata  aedificia  incendunt,   they  set  fire  to  the  remaining 
•  private  buildi7igs 

SYNTAX   OF  ADVERBS 

583.  An  adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  another  adverb. 

facilius  eis  persuasit,  he  persuaded  them  more  easily 
longe  ditissimus  fuit,  he  was  far  the  richest 
minus  late  vagantur,  they  wander  less  widely 

584.  Adverbs  sometimes  appear  as  modifiers  of  nouns,  the  word 
really  modified  being  omitted  for  brevity. 

ignari  ante  malorum,  ignorant  of  past  misfortunes  (lit.  ignorant  of 
misfortunes  previously,  a  word  meaning  endured  being  omitted) 
consul  iterum,  consul  for  the  seco?id  time 

585.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  like  adjectives. 

haec  sunt  palam,  these  facts  are  well  hnown 

fit  obviam  Clodio,  he  falls  in  with  Clodius 

duo  talenta  sunt  satis,  two  talents  are  sufiicient 

forte  quadam  divinitus,  by  some  provide7ttial  chance 

586.  Adverbs  of  quantity  and  place  —  satis,  enough  ;  nimis,  too 
much  ;  parum,  too  little ;  ubi,  where ;  nusquam,  nowhere ;  etc.  —  are 
sometimes  used  as  nouns  and  modified  by  a  partitive  genitive  (§  343). 

satis  eloquentiae,  sufficient  {of)  eloquence 
nimis  insidiarum,  too  much  (of)  trickery 
ubi  terrarum,  where  in  the  world? 


USES  OF  ADVERBS  239 

587.  An  adverb  is  often  equivalent  to  a  pronoun  with  a  preposition. 

eo  {=  in  iis)  imponit  vasa,  u/>o^  them  he  puts  the  camp  utensils 
apud  eos  quo  ( =  ad  qu5s)  se  contulit,  among  those  to  whom  he  went 
locus  quo  ( =  ad  quem)  aditus  n5n  erat,  a  place  to  which  there  was 
no  access 
For  the  formation  and  comparison  of  adverbs  see  §§  269  ff. 

SPECIAL  ADVERBS  AND  THEIR  USES 

588.  Etiam  (et  lam),  also,  even,  still,  and  quoque,  also,  are 
strengthening  adverbs,  though  quoque  sometimes  expresses 
merely  addition.  Etiam  usually  precedes  the  emphatic  word  ; 
quoque  regularly  follows  it. 

etiam  inermes  armatis  occurrerunt,  even  the  unarmed  ran  to  meet  the 

artned 
Caesar  quoque  castra  p5nit,  Ccesar  also  pitches  camp 

589.  Ita  and  sic,  so,  in  this  way,  thus,  are  generally  used 
with  verbs ;  tarn,  so,  expresses  degree,  and  as  a  rule  is  used 
only  with  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so 

sic  se  res  habet.  thus  the  matter  stands 

tarn  necessari5  tempore,  at  so  critical  a  time 

Note.    Tam  may  be  used  with  verbs  also  when  correlative  with  quam. 

590.  Nunc,  noiv,  at  the  present  moment,  refers  to  present  time 
or  to  past  time  conceived  as  present. 

lam,  no7v,  already,  contrasts  an  existing  condition  in  present, 
past,  or  future  time  with  a  preceding  different  condition.  With 
the  future,  iam  means  presently ;  with  negatives,  longer. 

Caesar  nunc  vincit,  Casar  is  conquering  now 

Caesar  iam  vincit,  Ccesar  is  already  conquering  (he  was  not  before) 

Caesar  iam  vincebat,  Ccesar  was  already  conquering  (he  had  not  been 

before) 
Caesar  iam  vincet.  Ccrsar^vill  conquer  presently  (he  is  not  conquering  now) 
n6n  est  iam  lenitati  locus,  there  is  no  longer  room  for  mercy  (there 

may  have  been  before) 


240  USES  OF  ADVERBS 

591.  Primum  means  first,  in  the  first  place,  in  a  series  of 
events  or  acts.   Primo  means  at  first,  as  opposed  to  afterwards, 

hoc  primum  sentio,  in  the  first  place  I  think  this 

aedis  primo  mere  rebamur,  atfi7-st  we  thought  the  house  was  falling  dowti 

Note.  Primum  or  primo  often  means  for  the  first  time ;  similarly 
tertium  or  tertio,  far  the  third  tijne ;  quartum  or  quarto,  for  the  fourth 
ti^ne ;  etc.    For  the  second  time  is  expressed  by  iterum. 

a.  Enumerations  are  introduced  by  primum  or  prim6  and  may 
be  closed  by  postremo  or  denique,  finally,  at  last.  The  intervening 
steps  are  introduced  by  deinde,  inde,  or  postea,  secondly,  next,  later, 
followed  by  tum,  then,  repeated  as  often  as  necessary, 

primum  mihi  videtur  de  genere  belli,  deinde  de  magnitiidine,  tum  de 
imperatore  deligendo  esse  dicendum,  first  it  seems  to  me  that  I 
should  speak  of  the  character  of  the  war,  next  of  its  Tnagnitiide, 
then  of  the  choice  of  a  comjna?ider 

Note.  Instead  of  repeating  tum,  theft,  the  ordinals  in  -um  may  be  used  : 
as,  quartum,  fourth  ;  quintum,  fifth  ;  etc. 

592.  Quidem,  indeed,  to  be  sure,  follows  the  word  it  empha- 
sizes. Often  the  clause  with  quidem  makes  a  statement,  which, 
while  granted  to  be  true,  is  shown  by  a  succeeding  statement, 
introduced  by  bnt  (sed,  autem,  etc.),  to  have  little  value. 

amicum  tuum  non  quidem  odimus,  sed  certe  non  probamus,  we  do  not  to 
be  sure  hate  your  friend,  but  we  certainly  do  not  approve  of  him 

a.  N6  .  .  .  quidem  means  «<?/  even.  The  emphatic  word  or  words 
must  stand  between  nS  and  quidem. 

ne  di  quidem  immortales  pares  eis  sunt,  ?tot  evefi  the  immortal  gods 
are  a  match  for  them 

Note.  Equidem  is  used  like  quidem,  but  is  rare  except  with  the  first 
person. 

593.  Ng,  surely  (to  be  distinguished  from  the  conjunction  n6,  lest, 
that  not,  not),  is  regularly  followed  by  a  personal  or  a  demonstrative 
pronoun. 

m  ill!  vehementer  errant,  surely  they  are  greatly  mistaken 


USES  OF  ADVERBS  241 

NEGATIVE  ADVERBS 

594.  The  common  negative  adverbs  are  nOn,  116,  and  baud. 

N(Jn  is  the  usual  negative,  n6  is  used  with  certain  subjunctives  and 
the  imperative,  and  baud  with  adjectives  and  adverbs  and  in  the 
phrase  baud  sciO  an,  /  don't  know  but. 

Note.    NuUus  is  sometimes  used  colloquially  for  n5n, 

595.  Two  negatives  cancel  each  other  and  are  equivalent  to 
an  affirmative. 

non  nulli,  some  (lit.  not  none) 

n5n  nihil,  something  (lit.  not  nothing) 

non  nemo,  some  one  (lit.  not  no  one) 

a.  But  when  words  of  general  negation,  like  nOn,  nibil,  numquam, 
etc.,  are  followed  by  nee  .  .  .  nee,  neque  .  .  .  neque,  nOn  mode,  n6  .  .  . 
quidem,  the  negation  is  not  destroyed  but  is  distributed  among  the 
separate  subordinate  members. 

numquam  Scipidnem  ne  minimi  quidem  re  offendi,  never  did  I  give 

ojfcnse  to  Scipio  even  in  the  smallest  matter 
nemo  umquam  neque  poeta  neque  Srator  fuit,  there  was  never  any  one, 

either  poet  or  orator 

Note.  The  proper  translation  of  nfln  modo  .  .  .  sed  ne  .  .  .  quidem 
with  a  common  verb  in  the  second  member  is  not  only  not  .  .  .  but  not 
even,  n5n  modo  being  used  instead  of  n5n  modo  n5n. 

adsentatid  non  modo  amic5  sed  ne  liberS  quidem  digna  est,  Jiattery  is 
not  only  not  becoming  to  a  friend  but  not  even  to  a  gentleman 

596.  In  the  second  of  two  connected  ideas,  and  not  is  regu- 
larly expressed  by  neque  (nee),  not  by  et  nOn.  So  also  negO,  / 
dcny^  is  preferred  to  dicO  nOn. 

hostSs  terga  verterunt  jmpie  fugere  destitSrunt,  the  enemy  turned  and 

fled  and  did  not  stop  fleeing 
negant  quicquam  esse  bonum,  they  say  that  nothing  is  good  (lit  they 

deny  that  anything  is  good) 


242  COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS 

SYNTAX   OF  CONJUNCTIONS 

597.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  sentences. 
They  are  divided  into  two  classes,  coordinating  and  subordi- 
nating (§  279). 

USE  OF  COORDINATING  CONJUNCTIONS 

598.  Coordinating  conjunctions  are  of  five  varieties  : 

I.  Copulative.  III.  Adversative. 

II.  Disjunctive.  IV.  Causal. 

V.  Inferential. 

I.  Copulative  Conjunctions 

599.  Copulative  conjunctions,  meaning  and,  also,  and  not, 
unite  similar  constructions.  The  principal  copulative  conjunc- 
tions are  et,  -que,  atque  (ac),  neque  (nee). 

600.  Et,  and,  simply  co7tnects  words  or  clauses. 

Castor  et  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux 

cum  coniugibus  et  liberis,  with  wives  and  children 

601.  The  enclitic  -que,  and,  is  attached  to  the  word  that  it 
connects,  and  combines  more  closely  than  et. 

senatus  populusque  Romanus,  the  senate  and  the  Rotnan  people  (com- 
bining to  form  the  governing  power) 
ferro  igmque,  with  fire  <3:«^  j-w^n/ (the  combined  means  of  devastation) 

a.  When  -que  connects  a  phrase  or  clause,  it  is  usually  attached  to 
the  first  word  of  that  phrase  or  clause ;  but  if  the  first  word  is  a 
preposition,  -que  is  usually  attached  to  the  second  word. 

ob  easque  res  supplicatio  decreta  est,  and  for  these  reasons  a  thanks- 
giving was  decreed 

Note.  The  enclitic  -que  should  not  be  attached  to  a  word  ending  in  c  or  e. 


COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  243 

602.  Atque  or  ac,  and^  and  so,  and  what  is  more,  generally 
throws  some  emphasis  on  what  is  added.  Atque  is  used  before 
either  vowels  or  consonants ;  ac,  as  a  rule,  only  before 
consonants. 

omnia  honesta  atque  inhonesta,  ail  things  honorabie  and,  what  is 

more,  dislionorable 
ac  Bibracte  ire  contendit,  and  so  he  hastened  to  go  to  Bibracte 

a,  Atque  or  ac  is  used  after  words  of  iikcness,  uniikeness,  or  com- 
parison, in  the  sense  of  as,  than. 

idem  ac,  the  same  as 

non  secus  (non  aliter)  ac  si,  not  otherwise  than  if 

baud  minus  ac,  no  less  titan,  just  as 

alius  ac,  other  than 

603.  Neque  or  nee,  and  not,  neither,  nor,  is  generally  used 
for  et  nOn  (§  596) ;  and  n6ve  or  neu  for  et  n6. 

ne  aba  te  banc  segreges  neu  deseras,  do  not  put  lier  away  from  you 
nor  desert  iter 

604.  Correlatives.  Copulative  conjunctions  are  often  used 
in  pairs,  or  are  repeated  in  successive  coordinate  clauses. 

\botli  .  .  .  and 
-que  .  .  .  -que  J 

neque  (nee)  .  .  .  neque  (nee),  neither  .  .  .  nor 

cum  .  .  .  tum,  while  .  .  .  at  the  same  time,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also 

605.  Enumerations.  In  naming  the  members  of  a  series, 
(I)  all  connectives  may  be  omitted  (see  §  619);  (2)  et  may 
precede  each  member,  or  each  but  the  first ;  (3)  -que  may  be 
attached  to  the  last  of  the  series. 

(1)  pater  mitM,  Mter,  ,or«r  1  ^  ^  ^^^ 

(2)  {et)  pater  et  mater  et  frater  et  soror  >        -  / 

(3)  pater,  mater,  frater,  sororque 


244  DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS 

11.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions 

606.  Disjunctive  conjunctions,  meaning  or,  and,  as  correla- 
tives (§6io),  either  .  .  .  or,  offer  a  choice  between  objects. 
The  principal  disjunctive  conjunctions  are  aut,  vel,  sive  (seu). 

607.  Aut,  or,  has  the  power  of  excluding,  and  indicates  that 
only  one  of  the  objects  or  ideas  presented  can  be  true,  or,  at 
least,  that  they  are  strongly  contrasted  or  essentially  different. 

animus  aut  est  aut  non  est,  the  soul  either  exists  or  it  does  not 
omne  enuntiatum  aut  verum  aut  falsum  est,  every  proposition  is  either 
true  or  false 

608.  Vel,  or,  is  the  old  imperative  of  volo,  wish,  and  means 
literally  wish,  take  your  choice.  It  is  used  to  connect  objects 
or  ideas  that  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  and  indicates  that 
any  one  or  all  of  them  may  be  chosen. 

Catilmam  ex  urbe  vel  eiecimus  vel  emisimus,  Catiline  we  have  either 
cast  out  of  the  city  or  (if  you  choose)  we  have  let  hint  out 

imbecilliores  vel  animo  vel  fortuna,  inferior  either  in  spirit  or  in 
fortune  (meaning  in  either  respect  or  in  both) 

Note.  Vel  is  sometimes  an  intensive  particle  meaning  evoi,  fqr 
instance :  as,  vel  minimus,  even  the  least. 

a.  The  enclitic  -ve,  or,  is  a  weakened  form  of  vel,  and  is  used  to 
express  a  distinction  so  unimportant  as  to  be  a  matter  of  indifference. 

telum  tormentumve,  a  weapon  or  an  engi7ie  of  war  (it  is  unimportant 
which  you  call  it) 

609.  Sive  or  seu,  or,  has  about  the  force  of  vel,  and  is  often 
used  to  connect  alternative  names  for  the  same  thing. 

hoc  Plato  sive  quis  alius  dixit,  Plato  or  some  one  else  said  this 
hie  discessus  sive  potius  turpissima  f  uga,  this  departure  or  rather  this 
most  disgraceful  flight 

For  sive,  or  if  connecting  conditions,  see  §  777. 


ADVERSATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  245 

610.  Correlatives.    Disjunctive  conjunctions  are  often  used 
in  pairs,  or  are  repeated  in  successive  coordinate  clauses, 
aut .  .  .  aut 


sive  (8«u)  .  .  .  sive  (seu),  whether .  .  .  or 


-   .either  .  .  .  or 
vel  .  .  .  vel 


III.  Adversative  Conjunctions 

611.  Adversative  conjunctions,  meaning  bitty  yety  however , 
etc.,  denote  opposition  or  contrast.  The  principal  adversative 
conjunctions  are  sed,  v6rum,  v6r0,  autem,  tamen,  at. 

612.  Sed,  the  usual  word  for  but,  and  v6rum,  but  in  truth, 
buty  are  used  to  modify  or  oppose  what  precedes,  especially 
after  negatives  {not  this  .  .  .  but  something-  else), 

nihil  Sequani  responderunt,  sed  taciti  permanserunt,  the  Sequani  made 

no  reply,  but  remained  silent 
non  modo  iniussu  suo  sed  etiam  inscientibus  ipsis,  not  only  against 

his  orders  but  also  iinthoiit  their  knowledge 
pacem  habebimus,  verum  cnientam,  we  shall  have  peace,  but  in  truth 

a  bloody  one 

a.  Both  sed  and  v6rum  may  be  used  to  mark  a  return  to  the  main 
thought  after  a  digression. 

sed  (or  verum)  redeo  ad  rem,  but  I  return  to  the  subject 

613.  V6r5  (postpositive  1),  but,  in  fact y  is  generally  stronger 
than  sed  or  v6rum. 

haec  sunt  leviora,  ilia  vero  gravia,  these  things  are  somewhat  triviaL 
but  those  weighty 

Note.  Turn  ver5,  then  in  truth,  then  verily,  is  used  in  narrative  to  in- 
troduce the  climax  or  crisis  of  a  series  of  events.  lam  verS  marks  a  transition. 

turn  viro  cl&m5re  audit5  nostri  acrius  impugn&re  coepSrunt,  then  verily, 
when  they  heard  the  shout  i/lg,  our  men  began  to  fight  more  fiercely 

iam  vero  acgritudinSs  oblividne  leniuntur,  but  again,  sorrows  are  healed 
by  forgetfulness 

*  A  postpositive  word  is  one  that  never  begins  a  sentence,  but  stands  after 
one  or  more  words. 


246  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS 

614.  Autem  (postpositive),  however,  moreover ,  now,  is  the 
weakest  of  the  adversatives.  It  neither  contradicts  what  pre- 
cedes nor  marks  a  sharp  contrast,  but  indicates  merely  a 
transition  to  a  new  thought. 

pro  multitudine  OMfCTTi  hominum  etc.,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
inhabitants^  moreover^  etc. 

615.  Tamen,  7ievertheless,  declares  something  as  true  in  spite 
of  what  precedes.  It  may  stand  first  or  follow  an  emphatic 
word. 

locum  reperit  munitum  ;   tamen  hunc  oppugnare  contendit,  he  finds  the 
place  fortified  J  nevertheless  he  strives  to  storm  it 

616.  At  (old  form  ast)  may  be  used  like  sed,  verum,  or  vero, 
but  is  used  especially  to  introduce  {a)  a  new  phase  of  a  situa- 
tion or  a  new  point  in  the  argument,  {b)  the  supposed  objec- 
tion of  an  adversary,  being  then  usually  strengthened  by  enim, 
or  (r)  a  change  of  scene  or  speaker. 

at  dices  etc.,  but  you  will  say  etc. 

ad  navis  tendebat  Achates.   At  Cytherea  etc.,  Achates  hastened  to  the 
ships.    But  Cytherea  etc. 

Note.    For  quamquam  in  the  sense  of  and yet^  however.,  see  §  807. 

IV.  Causal  Conjunctions 

617.  The  causal  conjunctions,  meaning /<?;',  explain  or  give 
the  reason  for  a  preceding  statement.  The  principal  causal 
conjunctions  are  nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim. 

is  pagus  appellabatur  Tigurinus  ;  nam  civitas  in  quattuor  pag5s  divlsa 

est,  that  catiton  was  called  Tigurinus  j  for  the  state  was  divided 
into  four  cantons 

a.  Enim  is  postpositive  except  in  early  Latin,  where  it  means 
indeed.,  verily. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  247 

V.  Inferential  Conjunctions 

618.  Inferential  conjunctions,  meaning  therefore^  and  so, 
introduce  the  natural  result  or  logical  inference  of  what  pre- 
cedes. The  principal  inferential  conjunctions  are  ergO,  igitur, 
itaque. 

Dumnorix  novis  rebus  studebat.    Ilaque  rem  suscipit,  Dumnorix  was 
eager  for  a  revolution.   And  so  he  undertook  the  business 

a.  Igitur  is  usually  postpositive.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  resume 
an  interrupted  narrative  and  may  then  be  translated  as  I  was  saying. 

.    Subordinating  conjunctions  are  discussed  in  connection  with 
the  various  subordinate  clauses  introduced  by  them. 

ASYNDETON 

619.  Asyndeton  is  the  omission  of  conjunctions  between 
two  or  more  coordinate  words,  phrases,  or  sentences  where 
they  would  be  naturally  expected.  The  effect,  except  in  a  few 
common  expressions  like  the  names  of  the  consuls  in  dates 
(as,  L.  PisOne  A.  GabiniO  cOnsulibus,  in  the  consulship  of  Lucius 
Piso  and  Aulus  Gabinius),  is  to  produce  rhetorical  emphasis. 

iura,  leges,  agr5s,  libertatem  nobis  reliquenint,  they  have  left  us  our 

rij^/ifs,  our  liut's,  our  fields,  our  liberty 
abiit,  excessit,  evasit,  erupit,  he  has  gone,  withdrawn,  escaped,  burst 
forth 

QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

620.  Questions  are  either  real  or  rhetorical. 

a.  A  real  question  is  one  that  seeks  for  information,  and  the  verb 
is  in  the  indicative. 

quid  f acis,  what  are  you  doing  f 

b.  A  rhetorical  question  is  interrogative  in  form,  but  does  not  seek 
information  nor  expect  an  answer.    It  answers  itself  and  is,  in  fact, 


248  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

an  emphatic  assertion  of  something.     The  verb  is  either  indicative 
or  subjunctive  (§§  678,  679). 

num  etiam  recentium  iniuriarum  memoriam  deponere  possum,  /  can't 
forget  the  7'ecent  w7'oiigs  too,  can  If  [Equivalent  to  the  assertion 
I  can't  forget  them.'] 

quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  do  ?  [Equivalent  to  /  couldn't  do  atiy- 
thifig.'] 

621.  Questions  are  either  direct  or  indirect. 

a.  A  direct  question  retains  the  form  used  in  asking  it. 
quid  est,  what  is  it  ?  ubi  sum,  where  am  I  ? 

b.  An  indirect  question  reports  the  substance  of  a  question  in  the 
form  of  a  dependent  clause.    The  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive  (§  812). 

rogo  quid  sit,  I  ask  what  it  is 

nescit  ubi  sit,  he  does  not  know  where  he  is 

Note.    For  exclamatory  questions  with  the  infinitive  cf.  §  843. 

622.  Questions  either  inquire  as  to  the  truth  or  falsity  of 
something,  and  expect  the  answer  yes  or  no ;  or  they  inquire 
as  to  some  detail  or  circumstance. 

"YES"  OR  "NO"  QUESTIONS 

623.  ''  Yes  "  or  "  No  "  questions  are  introduced  by  -ne,  nonne, 
or  num  as  follows  : 

a.  By  -ne  (attached  to  the  emphatic  word),  asking  for  information. 
mortemne  timet,  does  he  fear  death  ?  or  is  it  death  that  he  fears  ? 

b.  By  nonne,  implying  the  answer  yes. 
nonne  mortem  timet,  doesn't  he  fear  death  f 

c.  By  num,  implying  the  answer  no. 

num  mortem  timet,  he  does  n't  fear  death,  does  he  ? 

Note.  The  particle  -ne  sometimes  has  the  force  of  nonne,  especially 
when  added  to  the  verb. 

meministine  me  in  senatu  dicere,  don't  you  remember  my  saying  in  the 

senate  ? 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS  249 

624.  "  Yes  "  or  "  No  "  questions  sometimes  have  no  introductory 
word,  especially  if  the  first  word  of  the  question  is  nOii. 

mortem  timet,  does  he  fear  death  ? 

patere  tua  consilia  non  sentis,  do  you  not  see  tliat  your  schemes  are 

manifest  f 
non  f  ugis  hinc,  do  you  not  flee  hence  f 

QUESTIONS  OF  DETAIL  OR  CIRCUMSTANCE 

625.  Questions  inquiring  into  some  detail  or  circumstance  are 
introduced,  as  in  English,  by  interrogative  pronouns  or  adverbs. 

quid  exspectas.  what  are  you  looking  forward  to  ? 
quern  socium  defendistis,  what  ally  have  you  defended? 
quando  et  qud  is,  when  and  whither  are  you  going  f 

626.  The  enclitic  -nam  may  be  added  to  interrogative  pronouns 
or  adverbs  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

quisnam  est,  who,  pray,  is  it  ? 

ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in  the  world  are  we  ? 

ALTERNATIVE  QUESTIONS 

627.  An  alternative  question  is  an  inquiry  as  to  which  of 
two  or  more  cases  is  true.    It  is  introduced  as  follows : 

utrum  ...  an  1 

-ne  .  .  .  an       K  {whether) .  .  .  or 

...  an  J 

utrum  haec  vera  an  falsa  sunt^ 

verane  haec  an  falsa  sunt  I  are  these  things  true  or  false  ? 

haec  vera  an  falsa  sunt  J 

Note.   Observe  that  introductory  ntrum  or  -ne  in  a  direct  alternative 
question  has  no  English  equivalent. 

a.   Or  not  is  expressed  by  annOn  when  the  alternative  question  is 
direct,  usually  by  necne  when  it  is  indirect  (§  817). 

utrum  haec  sunt  vera  annon,  are  these  things  true  or  not  ? 
rogat  utrum  haec  sint  vera  necne,  he  asks  whether  these  things  are 
true  or  not 


250  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

•  6.  Sometimes  the  first  member  of  an  alternative  question  is 
omitted,  and  an  alone  asks  the  question,  usually  with  indignation 
or  surprise. 

an  invidiam  posteritatis  times,  (or)  do  you  fear  the  hatred  of  future 

years  f 
an  Pamphilus  venit,  has  Pa7nphilus  really  come  ? 

628.  Alternative  questions  asking  which  of  two  things  is  true 
must  be  distinguished  from  single  questions  asking  whether  either  is 
true.    In  the  latter  case  or  is  expressed  by  aut  or  vel. 

utrum  nescis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  putas,  don't  you  know,  or  do  you  think 

nothing  of  it  ?   [Alternative  question.] 
estne  urbs  magna  aut  pulchra,  is  the  city  large  or  beautiful?   [Single 

question.] 
num  vel  Caucasum  transcendere  potuit  vel  Gangem  transnatare,  could 

it  either  clif?tb  over  the  Caucasus  or  switn  across  the  Ganges  ? 

[Single  question.] 

ANSWERS 

629.  There  is  no  one  Latin  word  meaning  simply  yes  or  no. 

a.  The  answer  yes  may  be  expressed  by  repeating  the  verb  of 
the  question,  or  by  an  affirmative  adverb  —  vero,  ita,  etiam,  sane,  etc. 

.valetne,  is  he  well?  valet,  he  is,  or  vero,  truly 

b.  The  answer  no  is  expressed  by  repeating  the  verb  of  the 
question  with  a  negative,  or  by  a  negative  adverb  —  non,  minime,  etc. 

valetne,  is  he  well  ?  non  valet,  he  is  not  well,  or  non,  not  so 

630.  The  answer  to  an  alternative  question  is  expressed  by 
repeating  all  or  part  of  one  member  of  it. 

utrum  vidisti  an  audivisti,  did  you  see  it  or  hear  it  ?  egomet  vfdf,  I 
saw  it  7nyself 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS  251 

SYNTAX  OF  VERBS 
AGREEMENT  OF  VERB  AND  SUBJECT 
Agreement  with  One  Subject 
631.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person. 

Romulus  urbem  condidit,  Romulus  founded  the  city 

hi  omnes  inter  se  differunt,  all  these  differ  from  one  another 

nos  desumus,  we  are  wanting 

a.  In  verb  forms  containing  a  participle,  the  participle  agrees  with 
the  subject  in  gender  as  well  as  in  number. 

Gallia  eat  dmsa  in  partis  tres,  Gaul  is  divided  into  three  parts 

63JJ.  A  verb  sometimes  agrees,  not  with  its  subject,  but  with  a 
predicate  noun  or  an  appositive. 

amantium  irae  am5ris  integratio  est,  the  quarrels  of  lovers  are  the 

renewal  of  love 
Corinthus  liimen  Graeciae  exstfnctum  est,  Corinth,  the  light  of  Greece, 

has  been  put  out 

633.  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  the  real  meaning  of  the 
subject  without  regard  to  its  grammatical  form. 

multitud5  abeunt,  the  multitude  depart.    [Number.] 

decern  milia  occisi  sunt,  ten  thousand  were  slain.   [Gender.] 

Agreement  with  Two  or  More  Subjects 

634.  Number.    With  two  or  more  singular  subjects  the  verb 
is  regularly  plural. 

pater  et  avns  mortui  sunt,  his  father  and  grandfather  are  dead 

a.  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject  and  is 
understood  with  the  others. 

fnia  atque  unus  e  filiis  captus  est,  his  daughter  and  one  of  his  sons 
were  captured 


252  AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS 

6.  When  subjects  unite  to  make  a  single  whole,  the  verb  is  singular. 

senatus  populusque  Romanus   intellegit,  the  senate  and  the  Roman 
people  understand 

635.  With  singular  subjects  connected  by  disjunctives  (§  6o6)  the 
verb  is  usually  singular. 

neque  fides  neque  ius  iurandum  eum  repressit,  neither  Jidelity  nor  his 
oath  restrained  him 

636.  Person.  When  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons, 
the  verb  is  in  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second  and  in 
the  second  rather  than  the  third. 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and  Tullia  are  well, 
Cicero  and  I  are  well 

Note.  Contrary  to  English  usage,  courtesy  in  Latin  requires  that  the 
first  person  be  mentioned  first.  So  in  the  example  above,  Cicero  and  I  is 
rendered  ego  et  Cicero. 

637.  When  the  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun,  the  verb  takes  the 
person  of  the  antecedent. 

adsum  qui  feci,  here  am  I  who  did  it 

638.  Gender.  With  subjects  of  different  genders  the  parti- 
ciple in  a  verb  form  follows  the  rules  for  the  agreement  of 
predicate  adjectives.    See  §  502.  2. 

Omission  of  Subject  or  Verb 

639.  The  subject  is  omitted  when  it  is  an  unemphatic 
personal  pronoun  (§511). 

putamus,  we  think  dicunt,  they  say 

640.  The  present  indicative  and  infinitive  of  sum,  and  indic- 
ative tenses  of  other  common  verbs,  are  often  omitted. 

tu  coniunx,  you  (are)  his  wife 

quid  multa,  why  (say)  much  ?  " 

Aeolus  haec  contra,  ^olus  (spoke)  thus  in  reply 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  253 

MOODS   AND  TENSES  IN  INDEPENDENT   SENTENCES 

641.  The  Moods  express  by  the  form  of  the  verb  the  way 
in  which  the  subject  regards  the  action  —  as  true,  desired, 
doubtful,  etc. ;  and  the  Tenses  express  the  time  of  the  action. 

THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD 

642.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  to  state  something  as  a 
fact  or  to  inquire  as  to  facts.  This  inherent  function  of  the  in- 
dicative is  the  same  both  in  principal  and  in  subordinate  clauses. 

643.  Special  Uses.  The  indicative  is  sometimes  used  where 
the  English  idiom  would  suggest  the  subjunctive  (cf.  §  797)  : 

a.  In  expressions  of  duty,  propriety,  ability,  and  the  like,  especially 
when  using  the  passive  periphrastic  conjugation. 

haec  condicio  n6n  accipienda  fuit,  this  condition  should  not  have  been 

accepted 
eum  colere  debuisti,  you  ought  to  have  revered  him 
multa  dicere  possum,  I  might  say  much 

&.  In  such  expressions  as  longum  est,  //  would  be  tedious ;  difficile 
est,  //  would  be  diffiailt ;  melius  f uit,  /'/  would  have  been  better ;  etc. 

longum  est  omnes  nSminare,  //  would  be  tedious  to  name  them  all 

Tenses  of  the  Indicative 

644.  The  tenses  of  the  indicative  are  six  in  number :  the 
present,  past  descriptive,^  future,  perfect  (divided  into  present 
perfect  2  and  past  absolute  3),  past  perfect,*  future  perfect 

645.  The  Latin  tenses  express : 

a.  The  period  of  time  —  present,  past,  or  future. 
h.  The  kind  of  action  —  going  on,  completed,  or  indefinite  as  to 
continuation  or  completion. 

*  Also  called  the  imperfect.  •  Also  called  the  perfect  indefinite. 

*  Also  called  the  perfect  definite.  *  Also  called  the  pluperfect 


254 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE 


646.  The  Latin  has  no  special  forms  for  action  indefinite 
as  to  continuation  or  completion ;  hence,  in  some  cases,  the 
same  form  has  a  double  use. 


TABLE  OF  TENSES 


TIME 

KIND  OF  ACTION 

Going  on 

Completed 

Indefinite 

Present 

Pres.  duco, 
/  a7n  leading 

Pres.  Perf.  duxi, 
/  have  led 

Pres.  duco, 
/  lead 

Past 

Past  Descrip.  ducebam, 
/  was  leading 

Past  Perf.  duxeram, 
I  had  led 

Past  Absolute  duxi. 
lied 

Future 

Fut.  ducam, 
/  shall  be  leading 

Fut.  Perf.  duxero, 
/  shall  have  led 

Fut.  ducam, 
/  shall  lead 

Present  Indicative 

647.  The  present  indicative  represents  the  action  or  state 
{a)  as  now  existing  or  going  on  ;  {b)  as  a  general  truth. 

{a)  Germani  trans  Rhenum  incolunt,  the  Germans  live  across  the  Rhine 
{p)  obsequium  amlcos  parit,  Jlattery  gains  friends 

Note.    The  present  of  a  general  truth  is  called  the  gnofnic  present. 

Special  Uses  of  the  Present 

648.  The  Historical  Present.    In  lively  narration  a  past  action 
is  often  expressed  by  the  present. 

ad  eum  accurrunt  atque  docent,  they  ran  up  to  him  a7id pointed  out  etc. 
Caesar  castra  movet,  Ccesar  moved  his  camp 

Note.    The  historical  present  may  be  translated  by  either  a  present  or 
a  past  tense. 

a.  With  dum  meaning  while^  in  the  sense  of  during  the  tij?ie  that, 
the  historical  present  is  regular  (§  763). 

dum  haec  geruntur,  while  this  was  going  on 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  255 

NoTi:.  A  past  tense  with  dum  meaning  tvhile,  all  the  time  that,  or  as 
long  as  makes  the  time  emphatic  by  contrast. 

dum  tram  vdbiscum,  animum  meum  non  videbatis,  while  1 7vas  with  you, 
yoH  did  not  see  my  soul.  [Here  the  time  when  he  was  aUve  is  con- 
trasted with  that  after  death.] 

649.  The  Conative  Present.  The  present  sometimes  denotes  an 
action  attempted  or  merely  be^un. 

iam  manu  tenet,  already  he  tries  to  seize  him 

dena^sfertur  in  hostis,  he  starts  to  rush  into  the  thickest  of  the  foe 

650.  The  Present  with  iam  diu  etc.  With  iam,  iam  diu,  iam 
dudum,  etc.  {already^  now  for  a  long  time),  the  present  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  the  English  perfect  to  denote  an  action  begun 
in  the  past  and  continuing  in  the  present. 

iam  diu  igndrb  quid  agas,  now  for  a  long  time  I  have  not  known  what 

you  were  doin^ 
te  iam  dudum  hortor,  I  have  been  urging  you  now  for  a  long  time 

651.  The  Annalistic  Present.  The  present  may  be  used  for  the 
perfect  in  a  summary  enumeration  of  past  events. 

Roma  interim  crescit  Albae  minis  :  duplicatur  civium  numerus  ;  Caelius 
additur  urbi  m5ns,  Rome  meanwhile  grows  as  a  result  of  the  fall 
of  Alba  :  the  number  of  citizens  is  doubled;  the  Ccelian  hill  is 
added  to  the  town 

Past  Descriptive  ^  Indicative 

652.  The  past  descriptive  indicative  has  two  uses :  ,{d)  to 
denote  an  action  going  on  or  repeated  in  past  time  ;  (b)  to 
describe  a  situation  in  past  time  or  a  past  occurrence. 

(</)  Gain  inter  8§  obsides  dabant,  the  Gauls  were  giving  hostages  to 

each  other 
sS  in  proxima  oppida  recipiebant,  they  used  to  retreat  to  the  nearest  towns 
(b)  erant  omnino  duo  itinera,  there  were  in  all  two  ways 
palus  erat  n5n  magna,  there  was  a  stnall  marsh 

*  Also  called  the  imperfect. 


256  TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE 

Note.  In  its  descriptive  use  the  past  descriptive  is  usually  translated 
by  the  English  past,  since  the  English  fails  to  distinguish  between  the  past 
descriptive  and  the  past  absolute  (§  658.  II).  For  example,  Haedui  graviter 
ferebant  and  Haedui  graviter  tulerunt  are  both  rendered  the  Hadui  were 
afmoyed\  but  the  first  sentence  describes  a  situation,  and  the  second  merely 
states  a  fact. 

Special  Uses  of  tJie  Past  Descriptive 

653.  The  Conative  Past  Descriptive.  The  past  descriptive,  like 
the  present,  sometimes  denotes  an  action  attempted  or  merely  begun. 

eum  in  exsilium  eiciebam,  I  was  trying  to  sejid  him  into  exile 
nostros  prohibebant^  they  tried  to  keep  back  our  men 

654.  The  Past  Descriptive  with  iam  diu  etc.  With  iam,  iam 
diu,  iam  dudum,  etc.  (already,  now  for  a  lo7ig  time),  the  past 
descriptive  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  English  past  perfect  to 
denote  an  action  or  state  continuing  in  the  past  but  begun  at 
some  previous  time  (cf.  §  650). 

domicilium  Romae  iam  diu  habebat,  he  had  now /or  a  long  time  had 
his  residetice  at  Ro?ne 

Future  Indicative 

655.  The  future  indicative  denotes  an  action  or  state  that 
will  take  place  or  be  going  on  in  future  time. 

meam  libertatem  recuperabo,  I  shall  regain  my  freedom 

mea  erit  culpa,  //  will  be  7ny  own  fault 
Note.    The  distinction  felt  in  English  between  j//^//  and  will  in  the 
first  person  is  usually  disregarded  in  Latin,  both  ideas  being  expressed  by 
the  same  future  form.    Thus  moriar  may  mean,  according  to  context,  / 
shall  die  (futurity)  or  /  will  die  (determination). 

656.  The  future  may  have  the  force  of  an  imperative. 
tu  hodie  apud  me  cenabis,  you  will  dine  with  me  to-day 

657.  The  English  present  is  often  used  for  the  future.  We 
say,  for  example,  if  he  comes,  meaning  if  he  shall  come.  This  use 
of  the  present  is  rare  in  Latin,  the  more  regular  future  being 
preferred. 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  257 

Perfect  Indicative 

658.  The  perfect  indicative  has  two  distinct  uses : 

I.  As  the  present  perfect^  it  represents  the  action  as  com- 
pleted in  present  time,  and  is  rendered  by  the  English  perfect 
with  have. 

nunc  opus  vtegi,  noio  I  have  finished  my  work 
ut  supra  demonstrdvimus,  as  we  have  shown  above 

I I .  As  the  past  absolute  '-^  it  represents  the  action  as  having 
taken  place  at  some  undefined  point  of  past  time,  and  is  ren- 
dered by  the  English  past. 

is  coniurationem  nobilitatis  fecit,  he  made  a  conspiracy  of  the  nobility 
eo  exercitum  duxii,  he  led  his  army  thither 
vSni,  vidi,  vici,  /  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered 

a.  In  narrative  the  perfect  ,(or  historical  present)  tells  the  leading 
events,  while  the  past  descriptive  describes  the  circumstances  that 
attended  these  events  (cf.  §  652.  b). 

planities  erat  magna  et  in  ea  tumulus  satis  grandis.  Hie  locus  aequo 
fere  spatio  ab  castris  Ariovisti  et  Caesaris  aberat.  E6  ad  conlo- 
quium  vinerunt  there  was  a  large  plain  and  on  it  a  hill  of  con- 
siderable size.  This  place  was  about  equally  distant  from  the 
camp  of  Ariovistus  and  that  of  CcEsar.  Thither  they  came  for  a 
conference.  [Note  the  two  sentences  describing  a  place  followed  by 
the  sentence  stating  what  happened  there.] 

Special  Uses  of  the  Perfect 

659.  The  perfect  'is  sometimes  used  to  contrast  a  past 
condition  of  things  with  a  present  condition. 

f  nium  habed,  imm5  habul^  I  have  a  son  ;  no,  I  had  one 

fuimus  Trftcs,  fuit  ilium,  we  have  ceased  to  be  Trojans,  Ilium  is  no 

more  (lit.  we  were  Trojans,  Ilium  was) 

1  Sometimes  called  the  perfect  definite. 

'  Sometimes  called  the  historical  perfect  or  perfect  indefinite. 


258  TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE 

660.  The  present  perfect  sometimes  denotes  a  present  state 
resulting  from  a  completed  act.  Such  a  perfect  is  rendered  by 
the  present.    Among  these  perfects  are  : 

memini.  /  reme7nber  (/  have  called  to  mind) 

novi  or  cognovi,  /  know  (/  have  learned) 

6di,  /  hate 

consuevi,  /  ajn  accustomed  (/  have  grown  accustomed) 

Note.  The  past  perfect  and  future  perfect  of  such  verbs  are  rendered 
by  the  past  descriptive  or  the  perfect  and  by  the  future  respectively. 

nSveram,  /  knew,  I  have  kfiown  n5vero,  /  shall  know 

Past  Perfect  ^  Indicative 

661.  The  past  perfect  indicative  denotes  an  action  or  state 
completed  in  past  time. 

omnes  civitates  defecerant,  all  the  states  had  revolted 

Future  Perfect  Indicative 

662.  The  future  perfect  indicative  denotes  an  action  or  state 
that  will  be  completed  in  future  time. 

ego  certe  meum  ofELcium  praestitero,  I  at  least  shall  have  do  fie  7?ty  duty 

663.  Latin  is  far  more  exact  than  English  in  the  use  of  tenses. 
Hence  the  future  perfect  is  much  commoner  in  Latin  than  in  English. 
It  may  be  used  to  translate  an  English  future  or  even  an  English 
present,  when  exactness  of  expression  demands  a  future  perfect :  thus, 
when  you  come,  you  will  find  out  is  translated  cum  veneris^  cogn6sc6s. 

Epistolary  Tenses 

664.  In  letters  the  writer,  instead  of  using  tenses  suited  to 
the  time  of  writing,  sometimes  uses  tenses  that  will  be  suit- 
able when  his  letter  is  received.    Tenses  so  used  are  called 

epistolary. 

1  Also  called  the  pluperfect. 


TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  259 

Thus  he  may  use  the  past  descriptive  or  the  perfect  for  actions 
and  events  that  are  present,  and  the  past  perfect  for  those  that 
are  past. 

nihil  habebam  quod  ad  te  scriberem ;  ad  tuas  omnis  epistulas  lam 
rescrtpseram,  I  have  nothing  to  write  to  you ;  I  have  already 
answered  all  your  letters  (lit.  /  had  nothing  to  write  to  you  ;  I 
had  already  etc.) 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

665.  The  Latin  subjunctive  ^  is  used  to  express  something 
as  willed,  as  desired,  or  as  possible.  It  is  found  both  in 
independent  and  in  subordinate  clauses. 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive 

666.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  four  in  number : 
the  present,  past,^  perfect,  and  past  perfect.^ 

667.  The  four  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  have  in  general  the 
same  temporal  force  as  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the 
indicative. 

vide5  quid  facias,  I  see  what  you  are  doing 
videbam  quid  faceres.  I  saw  what  you  were  doing 
video  quid  feceris,  I  see  what  you  have  done 
videbam  quid  fecissis,  I  saw  what  you  had  done 

^  The  Latin  subjunctive  is  the  result  of  the  fusion  of  two  distinct  moods  of 
the  Indo-European  parent  speech,  the  subjunctive  and  the  optative,  and 
has  kept  the  characteristic  meanings  of  each.  The  Indo-European  subjunc- 
tive expressed  (a)  the  7ciii  of  the  speaker,  (b)  futurity;  the  Indo-European 
optative  expressed  (a)  the  -wish  of  the  speaker,  {b)  possibility-  The  Latin  sub- 
junctive inherited  all  these  powers,  but  its  use  as  a  pure  future  (like  the  future 
indicative)  disappeared  at  an  early  period,  except  in  certain  kinds  of  subordi- 
nate clauses,  and  even  here  the  future  force  of  the  mood  may  perhaps  be 
traced  to  a  different  origin. 

^  Also  called  the  imperfect. 

'  .Mso  called  the  pluperfect. 


26o  THE  VOLITIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

668.  The  subjunctive  lacks  the  future  and  the  future  perfect, 
but  any  subjunctive  tense  may  in  some  constructions  express 
futurity.    (See  also  §  698.  a,  b.) 

peream,  may  I  perish  / 
quid  faciam^  what  shall  I  do? 
rogavi  quid  facerem,  I  asked  what  I  should  do 
dixerit  aliquis,  so?ne  one  may  say 

demonstravit,  si  venissent,  multos  interitiiros,  he  showed  that  if  they 
should  come  {should  have  co?ne),  7na?iy  would  perish 

a.  The  place  of  the  future  is  supplied  by  the  subjunctive  present 
or  past  of  the  active  periphrastic  conjugation  (§  249.  «)  whenever  the 
use  of  the  ordinary  subjunctive  forms  would  be  ambiguous. 

Vide5  quid  facturus  sis,  I  see  what  you  will  {are  going  to)  do 
videbam  quid  facturus  esses,  I  saw  what  you  would  {were  going  to)  do 

669.  In  wishes  (§  681.  IL  i)  and  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact 
(§  786)  the  past  subjunctive  refers  to  the  present. 

The  Subjunctive  in  Independent  Sentences 

670.  The  subjunctive  in  independent  sentences  represents 
an  act  or  state  as  — 

Willed  —  the  volitive  subjunctive. 
Desired  —  the  optative  subjunctive. 
Possible  —  the  potential  subjunctive.^ 

The  Volitive  Subjunctive 

.671.  The  volitive  subjunctive  represents  an  act  or  state  as 
willed,  implying  authority.    This  subjunctive  comprises : 

I.  The  Hortatory.  III.  The  Concessive. 

II.  The  Jussive.  IV.  The  Deliberative. 

1  The  potential  subjunctive  is  often  called  the  subjuHCtive  of  contingent 
futurity. 


THE  VOLITIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE  261 

I.   The  Hortatory  Subjunctive 

672.  The  hortatory  subjunctive  expresses  an  exhortation, 
regularly  in  the  first  person  plural  of  the  present.  The  negative 
is  ne. 

proficiscamur,  lei  us  set  out 

optimus  potius  quam  querdmur,  let  us  pray  rather  than  complain 

ne  hos  latrones  interficiamus,  let  us  not  kill  these  robbers 

\A  diets  pareamus,  let  us  not  obey  the  order 

II.    The  Jussive  Subjunctive 

673.  The  jussive  'subjunctive  expresses  a  command  or  a 
prohibition.    The  negative  is  n6. 

674.  In  commands  the  jussive  subjunctive  is  regularly  con- 
fined to  the  present,  third  person  singular  or  plural. 

obsides  reddat,  let  him  return  the  hostages 

Aeolus  regnet,  let  j-Eolus  reign 

secedant  improbi,  secemant  se  a  bonis,  let  the  wicked  depart^  let  them 

separate  thepnseh'es  from  the  good 
desinant  insidiari  consuli,  let  them  cease  lying  in  wait  for  the  consul 

a.  The  second  person  of  the  jussive  subjunctive  is  used  only  of 
an  indefinite  subject  and  in  poetry. 

istS  bono  Utdre  dum  adsit,  use  that  blessing  while  it  is  present 
doceds  iter  (Vergil),  sho7v  us  the  way 
remittds  quaerere  (Horace),  cease  to  question 

675.  In  prohibitions  the  jussive  subjunctive  with  n6  is  in 
the  second  person,  singular  or  plural.  The  tense  may  be  either 
present  or  perfect,  with  no  apparent  difference  in  meaning. 

ne  metuds,  don't  fear  ne  mentidris,  don't  lie 

hoc  ne  fecerts,  don't  do  this  ne  dispexens,  do  not  despise 

But  neither  of  these  forms  of  expression  is  common  in 
classic  prose. 


w 


262  THE  VOLITIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

676.  Prohibition  is  regularly  expressed  in  two  ways : 

a.  By  noli  (singular)  or  nolite  (plural)  with  the  present  infinitive. 

noli  putare,  don'^  think  (lit.  be  unwilling  to  think) 
noli  me  tangere,  don't  touch  me 

b.  Less  commonly  by  cave  (take  ca^r),  cave  ne,  or  fac  n6  (see  to  it 
lesi)^  with  the  present  subjunctive  (§  720). 

cave  (ne),  or  fac  ne,  putes,  take  care  7iot  to  think  (lit.  take  care^  or  see 
to  it,  lest  you  thifik) 

For  the  imperative  in  prohibitions  see  §  690.  a.  n. 

III.  The  Concessive  Subjunctive 

677.  The  subjunctive  may  be  used  to  concede  or  grant 
something  for  the  sake  of  argument.  The  present  is  used 
for  present  time,  the  perfect  for  past.    The  negative  is  ne. 

sit  fur ;  at  est  bonus  imperator,  grant  that  he  is  a  thief ^  yet  he  is  a 

good  goieral 
sit  Scipio  ille  clams,  grant  that  Scipio  isfa?nous 
ne  fuerit  talis  aliis,  suppose  that  he  was  not  such  to  others 
sit  hoc  malum,  n5n  summum  certe  est  malum,  grant  that  this  is  an 

evil,  certainly  it  is  not  the  greatest  evil 

IV.  The  Deliberative  Subjunctive 

678.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  rhetorical  questions  (§  620.^) 
of  surpnse,  perplexity,   or  indignation,   expecting  no  reply.^ 

1  This  use  of  the  volitive  subjunctive,  beginning  with  questions  asked  by 
the  speaker  in  regard  to  the  -will  or  desire  of  the  person  addressed,  developed 
into  questions  no  longer  volitive  but  deliberative,  in  which  the  speaker  is  in 
doubt  and  deliberates  on  the  proper  course  to  pursue.    A  further  step  leads 
to  the  usual  meaning  covered  by  the  rule  above,  where  the  questions  are 
purely  rhetorical  or  exclamatory.    The  name  deliberative  is  generally  given 
to  all  these  idioms,  though  applicable  to  only  one  of  them, 
quid  f aciam,  what  do  you  desire  me  to  do  ?    [Volitive.] 
quid  faciam,  7uhat  am  I  to  do  ?    [Deliberative.] 
quid  faciam,  7uhat  shall  I  do  ?    [Rhetorical  or  Exclamatory.] 


THE  OPTATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE  263 

The  present  is  used  of  present  time,  the  past  of  past  time. 
The  negative  is  nOn.* 

quid  agam  ?  quo  me  vertam,  7uhat  shall  I  do  f  whither  shall  I  turn  ? 
quam  rationem  pugnae  Jnsistam,  what  plan  of  battle  shall  J  adopt  f 
quid  dicerem,  what  was  I  to  say  f 
cut  ego  n6n  laeter,  why  should  I  not  rejoice  f 

679.  The  indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  deliberative  questions. 

quid  ago,  what  am  I  to  do  ? 

dedemus  ergo  Hannibalem,  shall  we  then  surrender  Hannibal? 

The  Optative  Subjunctive 

680.  The  optative  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  wish. 
The  negative  is  n6. 

681.  I.  The   present  subjunctive  (with   or   without  utinam) 

denotes  a  wish  as  possible. 

sis  f elix,  may  you  be  happy 
falsus  utinam  vates  s/m,  may  I  be  a  false  prophet 
di  omen  avertant,  may  the  gods  ai'ert  the  omen 
ne  vtvaniy  si  sci5,  may  I  not  live,  if  I  know 

Note.    Utinam,  uti,  or  ut  (§  682),  introducing  a  wish,  do  not  appear  in 
the  translation. 

II.   I.  The   past   subjunctive   with   utinam   denotes   a   wish 
uuattaincd  in  present  time. 

utinam  Clodius  vtveret,  would  that  Clodius  were  now  alive  (but  he 

is  n't) 

2.  The  past  perfect  subjunctive  with  utinam  denotes  a  wish 
wiattained  in  past  time. 

utinam  omnia  edUxisset,  would  that  he  had  led  thtm  all  out  (but  he 

did  n't) 
utinam  ne  mortuus  esset^  would  that  he  had  not  died 

•  The  use  of  ndn  instead  of  nS,  the  regular  negative  with  the  vohtive,  may  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  these  questions  have  lost  their  volitive  character. 


264  THE  POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE 

682.  Uti  or  ut  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  utinam  in  poetry  and 
in  early  Latin. 

ut  pereat  robigine  telum  (Horace),  may  the  weapoti  perish  with  rust 

683.  In  poetry  si  or  6  si  with  the  subjunctive  sometimes  expresses 
a  wish. 

o  «  angulus  ille  acccdaf  (Horace),  O  if  that  corner  might  only  be  added 

The  Potential  Subjunctive 

684.  The  potential  subjunctive  ^  represents  an  act  or  state 
as  possible  or  conceivable.    The  negative  is  non. 

Note.  There  is  no  single  English  equivalent  for  this  subjunctive;  it 
must  be  rendered,  according  to  circumstances,  by  the  auxiliaries  would^ 
should^  may,  might,  can,  could. 

685.  The  present  and  perfect  of  the  potential  subjunctive 
denote  an  existing  possibility,  the  past^  denotes  a  past  possi- 
bility no  longer  existing. 

nemo  dicat  or  dixerit,  no  one  would  say 
diceres,  you  would  have  said 

Note.  Rarely  the  past  perfect  is  used,  instead  of  the  past,  to  refer  to 
what  might  have  been  but  is  not. 

686.  The  potential  subjunctive  has  three  uses  : 

a.  The  potential  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  first  person  singular, 
present  or  perfect,  of  verbs  of  sayifig,  wishing,  or  thijiking  to  make  a 
softened  or  cautious  assertion. 

pace  tua  dixerim,  I  would  say  by  your  leave 

velim  ita  putare,  /  should  like  to  think  so 

nolim  eum  laudare,  /  should  be  unwilling  to  praise  him 

ego  censeam,  I  should  think 

1  Also  called  the  subjunctive  of  contingent  futurity. 

2  Compare  the  use  of  the  past  subjunctive  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact 
(§  786). 


THE  IMPERATIVE  MOOD  265 

b.  The  potential  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  indefinite  second  person 
singular,  present  or  more  frequently  past,  of  verbs  of  saying,  believing^ 
seeing,  and  the  like. 

reos  diceres,  you  would  have  said  they  were  culprits 

crideris  victos,  you  would  have  believed  them  conquered 

vidires  susurros,  you  might  have  seen  them  whispering  (lit.  whispers) 

c.  The  potential  subjunctive  is  used  in  any  tense,  person,  or  number 
to  express  something  as  possible  or  conceivable.  The  subject  is  often 
an  indefinite  pronoun. 

aliquis  dfcat  some'  one  may  say 

nil  ego  contulerim  amico,  /  should  compare  nothing  to  a  friend 

quid  dixisset  luhat  would  he  have  said? 

quis  temperet  a  lacrimis,  who  could  refrain  from  tears  ? 

687.  The  potential  subjunctive  may  be  regarded  as  the  conclusion 
of  a  conditional  sentence  with  the  condition  understood.    See  §  774. 

688.  The  indicative  is  used  in  certain  expressions  when  the 
potential  subjunctive  might  have  been  expected.    See  §  643. 


THE  IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

689.  The  imperative  is  the  mood  of  cominajid  or  request. 
The  negative  is  n6. 

690.  The  tenses  of  the  imperative  are  two  in  number,  the 
present  and  the  future. 

a.  The  present  imperative  demands  immediate  action. 

disiltte,  commilitones,  leap  down,  comrades 

muta  istam  mentem,  change  that  pufpose  of  yours 

egredere  ex  urbe,  depart  from  the  city 

Note.    The  present  with  n5  to  express  prohibitions  is  found  only  in 
early  Latin  and  in  poetry.    For  the  regular  expression  of  prohibitions  see 

?5  '')76. 


266  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 

b.  The  future  imperative  is  used  in  commands  demanding  future 
action  and  in  laws  and  precepts. 

eras  petito,  ask  to-morrow 

Phyllida  mitte,  postea  ipse   veniio,  send  Phyllis,  afterwards  co7ne 

yoM7'self 
praetor  cust5s  esto,  the  prcEtor  shall  be  the  guardian 
borea  flante,  ne  arato,  when  the  north  wind  blows,  don't  plow 

691.  The  verbs  scio,  memini,  and  habeo  (in  the  sense  of  consider) 
are  used  in  the  future  imperative  instead  of  in  the  present. 

memento  Horati  Flacci,  be  mindful  of  Hor-atius  Flaccus 
sic  habeto,  mi  Tiro,  so  consider  it,  my  good  Tiro 

For  the  future  indicative  used  as  imperative  see  §  656. 


MOObS  AND   TENSES   IN   SUBORDINATE   CLAUSES 

692.  Tenses  are  divided  into  two  classes,  —  primary  and  sec, 
ondary.  Primary  tenses  denote  present  or  future  time.  Second 
ary  tenses  denote  past  time. 

r  Present 

T    Ti  •  ^  Future 

I.  Primary  tenses^  ^  ^     . 

^  j  Present  Perfect 

(^Future  Perfect 

r  Past  Descriptive  (Imperfect) 
II.  Secondary  tenses^  Past  Absolute  (Historical  Perfect) 
\  Past  Perfect  (Pluperfect) 

693.  In  the  subjunctive  the  present  and  perfect  tenses  are 
primary,  the  past  and  past  perfect  are  secondary. 

694.  The  tense  class  of  a  subjunctive  in  a  dependent  clause 
is  determined  by  the  tense  class  of  the  verb  in  the  principal 
clause.    This  relationship  is  called  sequence  of  tenses. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES  267 

695.  The  following  is  the  general  rule  for  the  sequence 
of  tenses  : 

When  the  principal  verb  is  primary,  a  dependent  subjunctive 
will  be  present  or  perfect ;  when,  the  principal  verb  is  secondary, 
a  dependent  subjunctive  will  be  past  or  past  perfect.  • 

Regular  Sequence  of  Tenses 

696.  In  dependent  clauses  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
represent  the  action  as  takiui:;  place,  as  ^oing  to  take  place,  or 
as  hainng  taken  place  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb. 

The  kind  of  action  denoted  by  the  tenses  of  the  verb  in  the 
dependent  clause,  and  the  sequence  of  tenses,  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


prinxipal 
Verk 

Dki-EM)ENT  Scbjunctive 

Action  going  on 

Future  Action 

Past  Action 

:3L 

7. 
as 

a: 

■J. 

Present 
Future 

Present  Perfect 
Future  Perfect 

Present 

(After  any  pri- 
mary tense) 

Present  or  Per- 
fect 

(After  any  pri- 
mary tense) 

Perfect 
(After  any  pri 
mary  tense) 

Past  Descriptive 
Past  Absolute 
Past  Perfect 

Past 
(After  any  sec- 
ondary tense) 

Past   or   Past 
Perfect 

(After  any  sec- 
ondary tense) 

Past  Perfect 
(After  any  sec- 
ondary tense) 

697.  Sequence  of  tenses  is  illustrated   in  the  table  on  the 
next  page. 

698.  In  applying  the  rules  for  the  use  and  sequence  of  the 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  observe  especially  the  following  points : 

a.  The  future  is  supplied  by  the  present  subjunctive  after  primary 
tenses  and  by  the  past  subjunctive  after  secondary  tenses. 

exspectant  quid  Caesar  faciat,  they  wait  to  see  what  C'asar  will  do 
exspectabant  quid  Caesar  faceret,  they  watted  to  see  what  C(Psar 
would  do  * 


268 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 


C/2 
C/3 

^; 

w 

o 

w 
u 

w 

D 
W 

o 

X 


■^      «r     \» 

"Ki 

II 

to 

00       ^ 

P- 

1  s,^-i 

1  - 

> 

o« 

cr 

2^1 

'^1          1 

c 
.2 

o 

1§  1 

•1  ic- 

:3 

Q 

1 

is     ^     S 

aceres  or 

esses, 
i/d  do 
fecisses, 

i/d  have 

w 

, 

MH       oo     M-.       t^ 

'^^     w     5           5 

0. 

12    2   12   -^ 

3    2^3^ 

Q 

^          ^ 

;^               :i 

a*         cr 

&               o* 

•^ 
^    ^ 

■^    ^ 

c 

O 

1.| 

1| 

|l 

fi 

.2 

'*^    S 

"•Ij 

o 

< 

1^ 

1^ 

cr 

cr 

•VJ 

t-j 

1       1 

n 

"^ 

^               S 

> 

^  ^  ^ 

o               « 

< 

^    ^  ^ 

^      -^  s 

Oc 

c 

■<.  -^  ^  ^ 

s      §  a 
a  >  ^.  2 

2 

^  s  S  «-^  ^ 

lO     loS     icS     108      C 

lets      ^     K     i« 
bo    ^    bo   bo 

bo   bfl   ho   bo    ^ 

S    2    2    2 

2        2   2 

AHVKIHd 

AHVaNOD3S 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES  269 

b.  The  future  perfect  is  supplied  by  the  perfect  subjunctive  after 
primary  tenses  and  by  the  past  perfect  subjunctive  after  secondary 
tenses. 

demSnstrat,  si  venerint,  multds  interiturSs,  A^  s/ioivs  that  if  they  come 

{shall  hiiTt'  come),  many  will  perish 
demdnstravit,  si  vinissent,  multds  interiturds,  he  showed  that  if  they 

should  come  {should  have  come\  many  would  perish 

c.  When  a  clearer  reference  to  future  time  is  necessary,  the  active 
periphrastic  forms  in  -iirus  sim  and  -Qnis  essem  are  employed. 

exspectant  quid  Caesar  facturus  sit,  they  wait  to  see  what  Casar 

"will  do 
exapectabant  quid  Caesar  facturus  esset,  they  waited  to  see  what  Casar 

would  do 

Note.  This  is  the  usual  form  of  expression  in  future  indirect  questions 
(§815). 

d.  After  a  primary  tense  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  used  to  denote 

any  past  action.  ^  ,  ... 

^  ^  I  have  written 

n5n  dubito  quin  omnes  scripserint,  I  do  not  doubt  that  all\  wrote 

y  were  writing 

Peculiarities  in  the  Sequence  of  Tenses 

699.  The  present  perfect  is  ordinarily  treated  as  a  secondary 
tense  and  is  followed  by  a  secondary  tense  of  the  subjunctive. 

ut  satis  tsset  praesidi  prSvisiun  est,  provision  has  been  made  that 
there  should  be  ample  guard 

a.  When  present  time  is  clearly  in  mind,  the  present  perfect  is 
followed  by  a  primar)'  tense. 

ita  didicimus  ut  magis  virttite  quam  insidiis  contendamus,  we  have 
been  so  trained  that  we  fight  more  by  valor  than  by  stratagems 

700.  The  historical  present  (§  648)  takes  either  the  primary 
or  the  secondary  sequence. 

roeat  ut  haec I  ^^^    \he['"  f  A  ^ti>"  i^>  attend  to  these  tnatters 
*  \aLrartt]       yaskedy 


2/0  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 

701.  A  ge?teral  truth  after  a  secondary  tense  follows  the  rule  for 
sequence  of  tenses. 

quanta  conscientiae  vis  esset  ostendit,  he  showed  how  g?-eat  the 
strength  of  conscience  is 

702.  In  clauses  of  result  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  very  often 
(the  present  rarely)  used  after  a  secondary  tense. 

ita  non  timidus  fuit  ut  fortiter  pugnaverit,  he  was  so  fearless  that  he 

fought  bravely 
Hortensius  ardebat  tanta  cupiditate  dicendi  ut  in  null5  mnquam  fla- 

grantius   studium   vTderim,   Hortensius  burned  with  so  great  a 

desire  for  speaking  that  I  have  never  seen  a  7nore  burning  ardor 

in  any  man 

a.  Occasionally  the  same  irregular  use  of  the  perfect  subjunctive 
appears  in  other  clauses. 

cum  multas  horas  pugnatum  sit,  aversum  hostem  videre  nemo  potuit, 
though  the  conflict  raged  for  many  hours,  no  one  could  see  aft 
enemy  in  retreat 

703.  A  dependent  perfect  infinitive  is  usually  followed  by  a 
secondary  tense,  even  when  the  principal  verb  on  which  the 
infinitive  depends  is  in  a  primary  tense. 

satis  mihi  multa  verba  fecisse  videor  qua  re  hoc  bellum  esset  necessa- 
rium,  /  seem  to  have  made  it  sufficiently  clear  why  this  war  is 
necessary 

704.  The  past  and  past  perfect  subjunctive  in  conditions 
contrary  to  fact  (§§  786,  793)  are  not  affected  by  the  sequence 
of  tenses. 

non  dubito  quin  ad  me  venires,  si  posses,  I  do  not  doubt  that  you  would 
co7ne  to  7ne  if  you  could 

705.  When  a  subjunctive  depends  on  a  subjunctive,  the 
sequence  is  as  follows  : 

a.  The  present  subjunctive  is  regularly  followed  by  primary  tenses. 
6.  The  past,  perfect,  and  past  perfect  subjunctive  are  followed  by 
secondary  tenses. 


SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  271 

nescid  quid  causae  sit  ciir  nullas  ad  me  litteras  des  (dederis,  daturus  sis)^ 

I  do  not  know  what  the  reason  is  why  you  send  {have  sent,  wilt 

send)  me  no  letter 
nescio   quid   causae  fuerit  cur  niillas  ad  me  litteras  dares  (dedisses, 

daturus  esses),  I  do  not  know  wluit  the  reason  was  why  you  sent 

{had  sent,  would  send)  me  no  letter 

nesciebam  quid  causae  \  !-  cur  nullas  ad  me  litteras  dares  {dedisses, 

daturus  esses),  I  did  not  know  what  the  reason  \  i.   j  i.       \  f^hy 
you  sent  {had  sent,  would  send)  me  no  letter 

706.  When  a  subjunctive  clause  depends  on  a  present  or 
future  infinitive,  a  supine,  gerund,  or  participle,  its  tense  class  is 
regulated  by  the  tense  class  of  the  verb  in  the  principal  clause. 

confido  me  quod  velim  facile  a  te  impetratiirum  esse.  /  trust  I  shrill 

t'iis//y  obtain  from  you  what  I  wish 
constitueram  venire  ut  te  vidirem,  J  had  made  up  my  mind  to  come 

to  see  you 
miserunt  Delphos  consultum  (supine)  quidnam  facerent,  they  sent  to 

Delphi  to  ask  what  they  should  do 

NoTK.    For  the  sequence  of  tenses  after  the  perfect  infinitive  see  §  703. 

707.  Though  the  laws  of  tense  sequence  are  in  general  closely 
observed,  they  are  not  inflexible,  and  many  irregularities  occur. 
These  are  often  due  to  a  desire  for  rhetorical  effect  and  sometimes 
to  careless  writing. 


DEVELOPMENT  OP  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

708.  In  the  early  stages  of  language  there  were  no  subordi- 
nate clauses,  but  only  coordinate  independent  sentences.  From 
these  subordinate  clauses  were  a  gradual  development. 

I'or  example,  timeC  n6  veniant  consisted  originally  of  two  inde- 
pendent sentences,  I  fear.  May  they  not  come.  Later,  n6  veniant 
was  felt  as  a  subordinate  clause,  and  thus  was  developed  the  com- 
plex sentence  I  fear  that  they  will  come  (lit.  lest  they  may  come). 


2/2  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

Kinds  of  Subordinate  Clauses 

709.  From  independent  sentences  with  the  indicative  or 
subjunctive  were  developed  three  kinds  of  subordinate  clauses  : 

I.  Adverbial  clauses,  expressing  various  adverbial  relation- 
ships and  introduced  by  conjunctive  adverbs. 

venio  ut  Caesarem  laudem,  I  co?ne  to  praise  CcEsar 

II.  Adjective  clauses,  used  to  qualify  some  noun  or  pronoun 
and  introduced  by  the  relative  qui  or  by  a  relative  adverb. 

legatum  mittit  qui  haec  curet,  he  sends  his  lieutenant  to  see  to  these 
^natters 

Note.    These  are  usually  called  relative  clauses. 

III.  Substantive,  or  noun,  clauses,  used  as  subject,  object, 
predicate  noun,  or  appositive. 

accidit  ut  GalU  consilium  mutdrent,  it  happened  that  the  Gauls  changed 
their plati.    [Substantive  clause  used  as  subject.] 

The  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses 

710.  Both  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  are  used  in 
subordinate  clauses.  The  uses  of  the  subjunctive  are  all 
developed  from  the  three  meanings  (volitive,  optative,  and 
potential)  that  this  mood  has  in  principal  clauses  (§  670). 

711.  The  indicative  or  subjunctive  is  used  in  subordinate 
clauses  to  express  — 

1.  Purpose  (subjunctive ;  §712). 

2.  Description  or  characteristic  (subjunctive;  §  726). 

3.  Consequence  or  result  (subjunctive ;  §731). 

4.  Time  (indicative  or  subjunctive;   §  743). 

5.  Cause  (indicative  or  subjunctive ;  §767). 

6.  Condition  (indicative  or  subjunctive;   §  772). 

7.  Comparison  (subjunctive ;   §  803). 


CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE  273 

8.  Concession  (indicative  or  subjunctive ;  §  805). 

9.  Proviso  (subjunctive;  §811). 

10.  Indirect  questions  (subjunctive;  §  812). 

1 1.  Facts  introduced  by  quod  (indicative;  §  821). 

12.  Indirect  discourse  (subjunctive ;  §886). 


Subjunctive  Clauses  of  Purpose 

712.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  adverbial,  relative,  and 
substantive  clauses  to  express  purpose. 

I.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Purpose 

713.  An  adverbial  clause  denoting  purpose  takes  the  sub- 
junctive, and  is  introduced  by  ut  or  uti,  that,  in  order  that, 
or  116,  that  noty  in  order  that  not,  lest. 

Caesar  equ5s  remSvit  ut  spem  fugae  totleret,  Casar  removed  the  horses 

that  he  might  take  away  the  hope  of  flight 
ibi  tormenta  conlocavit  nl  hostes  suos  circumvenire  possent,  there  he 

placed  his  engines  of  war  that  the  enemy  might  not  be  able  to 

surround  his  men 
ne  graviori  bell6  occurreret,  ad  exercitum  proficiscitur,  he  set  out  for  the 

army  that  he  might  not  pneet  with  too  serious  a  war 
n5n  null!,  ut  timSris  suspicidnem  vitarent,  remanebant,  some  remained 

{in  order)  to  avoid  the  suspicion  of  fear 

Note.  Purpose  clauses  are  often  called  final  clauses.  The  subjunctive 
of  purpose  is  volitive  (§671)  in  origin. 

a.  Ut  nOn  may  be  used  for  nfi  when  the  negative  applies  to  a 
single  word  or  phrase  and  not  to  the  whole  clause. 

ut  non  Siectus  sed  invitatus  isse  videaris,  that  you  may  seem  to  have 
gone  not  expelled  but  invited 

b.  Ut  n6  is  stronger  than  118  alone. 

exstiti  ut  nl  omnind  desertus  esaet,  /  appeared  that  he  might  not  be 
entirely  deserted 


274  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE 

c.  And  that  not,  and  lest,  or  that  not  are  regularly  expressed  by 
nSve  or  neu. 

id  fecit  ne  poenas  daret  neve  quid  detrimenti  acciperet,  he  did  this  that 

he  might  not  receive  pufiishine7it  ajid  that  he  might  not  suffer 

any  harm 
nuntios  misit  ne  Helvetios  frumento  neoe  alia  re  iuvarent,  he  sent 

messejigers  that  they  7night  not  assist  the  Helvetii  with  grain  or 

anythijig  else 
aliae  sublicae  supra  pontem  agebantur  ut  earum  rerum  vis  minueretur 

neu  ponti  nocerent,  other  piles  were  driven  above  the  bridge  that 

the  violence  of  those  things  might  be  diminished  or  that  they 

might  not  injure  the  bridge 

714.  Subjunctive  clauses  with  ut  or  ne  are  sometimes  inserted 
parenthetically.  • 

ac  ne  longum  s/Y,  tabellas  pr5ferri  iussimus,  and,  not  to  be  tedious,  we 

ordered  the  tablets  to  be  p7'oduced 
optima  vitae,  ut  ita  dicam,  supellex,  the  best  furniture,  so  to  speak,  of  life 

Note.  The  subjunctive  may  be  regarded  as  depending  on  some  unex- 
pressed verb  :  as,  (I  speak  thus)  in  order  not  to  be  tedious. 

II.  Relative  Clauses  of  Purpose 

715.  A  relative  clause  denoting  purpose  takes  the  subjunctive. 

Helvetii  legates  mittunt  qui  dicerent,  the  Helvetii  sent  ambassadors  to 

say  (lit.  who  should  say) 
sarmenta  coUigunt  quibus  fossas  expleant,  they  gather  fagots  with 

which  to  fill  the  ditches 
scribebat  orationes  quas  alii  dicerent,  he  wrote  speeches  for  others  to 

deliver 
dies  dicta  est  qua  omnes  convenirent,  a  day  was  appointed  on  which 

all  should  assemble 

Note.  In  this  construction  qui  is  equivalent  to  ut  is,  ut  ego,  etc. ;  and 
the  subjunctive,  as  in  ut  clauses  of  purpose,  is  volitive  (§671)  in  origin. 

716.  A  relative  clause  of  purpose  is  often  introduced  by  the  relative 
adverbs  ubi  (=  ut  ibi),  where ;  unde  (=  ut  inde),  whence ;  qu5 
(=  ut  eo),  whither-,  etc. 


CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE  275 

domum  ubi  habitaret  legit,  //^  cAose  a  house  where  he  might  dwell 
(equivalent  to  ///  order  that  he  might  dwell  there) 

habebam  quo  confugeremy  I  had  a  place  to  flee  to  (lit.  whither  I  might 
flee ;  equivalent  to  in  order  that  I  might  flee  thither) 

717.  The  adjectives  dignus,  indignus,  and  idOneus  are  followed  by 
a  relative  clause  of  purpose. 

hunc  Caesar  idoneum  iudicavit  quern  mitteret,  Casar  judged  him  a  suit- 
able person  to  send  (lit.  whom  he  might  send) 

hi  libri  sunt  digni  qui  legantur,  these  books  are  worth  reading  (lit. 
worthy  which  should  be  read) 

718.  The  ablative  qu5  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in  purpose 
clauses  which  contain  a  comparative. 

manipulos  Uucare  iussit  quo  facilius  gladiis  uti  possent,  he  gai'e  orders 

to  open  the  ranks  that  they  might  be  able  to  use  their  swords 

more  easily 
castella  communit  quo  facUius  hostis  prohibere  posset,  he  fortified  the 

redoubts  that  he  might  the  more  easily  be  able  to  ward  off  the 

enemy 

Note  i.  In  this  construction  qu6  is  really  an  ablative  of  the  measure 
of  difference  (§475). 

Note  2.  Qu5  rarely  introduces  a  purpose  clause  containing  no  com- 
parative. 

Sulla  cxercitum,  quo  sibi  fidum  faceret,  luxuriose  habuerat,  Sulla  had 
treated  the  army  luxuriously,  in  order  to  make  it  devoted  to  him 

Note  3,  For  qu5  minus  (=  ut  eo  minus)  after  verbs  of  hindering  see 
§  720.  III. 

III.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose 

719.  Substantive  clauses  developed  from  the  volitive  or  optative 
subjunctive  are  generally  designated  as  substantive  clauses  of  purpose, 
and  are  conveniently  classified  together  under  this  name.  But  in 
many  cases  no  idea  of  purpose  is  perceptible  and  the  mood  is  due  to 
some  original  volitive  or  optative  use  which  may  never  have  denoted 
jDurpose  at  all. 

Note.   Compare  substantive  clauses  of  result  (§  736). 


276  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE 

720.  Object  Clauses  of  Purpose.  Object  clauses  with  the 
subjunctive  are  used  after  verbs  denoting  an  action  directed 
toward  the  future.    Thus  : 

I.  Object  clauses  with  the  subjunctive,  introduced  by  ut  or 
ne,  are  used  after  verbs  meaning  to  advise,  ask,  command, 
decide,  permit,  persuade,  strive,  urge,  wish,  and  the  like. 

monet  ut  omnes  suspiciones  vitet,  he  advises  him  to  avoid  all  suspicion 
te  rogo  atque  oro  ut  eum  iuves,  I  ask  and  beseech  you  to  help  him 
suis  imperavit  ne  quod  telum  reicerent,  he  commanded  his  men  ?iot  to 

throw  back  any  weapon 
persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  he  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize 

the  royal  power 
hortatur  e5s  ne  deficiant,  he  urges  thent  not  to  fail 

a.  lubeo,  order,  and  YQto,  forbid,  regularly  take  the  infinitive  with 
subject  accusative. 

liberos  ad  se  adducT  iussit,  he  ordered  the  children  to  be  brought  to  him 
legdtos  discedere  vetuerat,  he  had  forbidden  the  lieute?tants  to  go  away 

h.  V0I6  (nolo,  malo)  and  cupio  generally  take  the  infinitive ;  so 
also  other  verbs  of  wishing  when  the  subject  remains  the  same. 

rex  fieri  volui,  /  wished  to  become  king 

cUpio  me  esse  clementem  or  cupi5  esse  Clemens,  /  desire  to  be  merciful 

cupi5  ut  impetret,  I  wish  he  may  get  it.    [The  subject  changes.] 

c.  Conor,  try^  and  patior,  permit,  regularly  take  the  infinitive. 

flumen  trdnsire  conantur,  they  try  to  cross  the  river 
per  suos  finis  e5s  ire  patiuntur,  they  allow  them  to  pass  through  their 
territory 

d.  Many  of  these  verbs  take  either  the  subjunctive  or  the  infini- 
tive ;  and  some,  retaining  an  earlier  form  of  expression,  may  take  the 
subjunctive  without  ut. 

Caesar  statuit  proficisci^  Cccsar  decided  to  set  out.  [Note  the  infinitive.] 
statuunt  ut  decem  milia  hominum  mittant,  they  decide  to  send  ten 
thousand  men.    [Note  the  subjunctive.]  ^ 

rogat  finem  faciat,  he  asks  him  to  cease 


CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE  277 

II.  Object  clauses  with  the  subjunctive  are  used  after  verbs  of 
fearing  —  metuO,  timeO,  vereor,  etc.  The  object  clause  is  introduced 
by  n6,  translated  by  that^  and  nC  nOn  or  ut,  translated  by  that  fiot} 

timed  ne  Verres  hoc  fecerit,  I  fear  that  Verres  has  done  this 
vereor  ni  non  veniat,  I  fear  that  he  is  not  coming 
vereor  ut  passim,  I  fear  thai  I  cannot 

Note.    When  the  verb  of  fearing  is  negatived,  ne  n6n  is  preferred  to  ut. 

non  vereor  nl  tua  virtus  opinion!  hominum  non  respondeat,  /  do  not  fear 
that  your  worth  unit  not  equal  popular  expectation 

a.  Verbs  of  fearing  are  often  followed  by  the  complementary 
infinitive,  as  in  English. 

vereor  te  lauddre,  I  fear  to  praise  you 

III.  Object  clauses  with  the  subjunctive  are  used  after 
verbs  of  hindering y  opposing y  refusing — dfiterreO,  prohibeO,  impediO, 
retineO,  reciisO,  etc.  The  object  clause  is  introduced  by  nS,  quin, 
or  quOminus  (quO  minus).  N6  or  quSminus  is  used  when  the  main 
clause  is  affirmative,  quin  or  quOminus  when  it  is  negative  or 
implies  a  negative. 

prohibent  ne  fiat,  they  Prevent  it  from  being  done 

deterret  ne  maior  multitudd  traducatur,  he  pre^'ents  a  larger  number 

from  beini^  broui^ht  over 
nihil  impedit  quominus  id  fadamus,  nothing  hinders  us  from  doing  that 
German!  retineri  n5n  poterant  quin  tela  conicerent,  tht  Germans  could 

not  be  restrained  from  huriini^  their  weapons 
neque  reciisant  quin  armis  contendant,  nor  do  they  refuse  to  fight 

a.  Some  of  these  verbs  may  take  the  infinitive, 
nostrds  /n^^^d/ prohibebant,  they  prevented  our  men  from  entering 

>  Originally  timed;  n8  accidat  meant  I  fear;  may  it  not  happen  (§680). 
When  the  sentence  beconKs  complex  (§  300),  the  EngHsh  equivalent  is  I  fear 
that  it  will  happen.  The  origin  of  the  ut  clause  after  verbs  of  fearing  is  similar, 
vereor ;  ut  accidat  meaning  originally  I  fear;  may  it  happen  (ut  introducing  a 
wish  and  not  appearing  in  the  translation,  cf.  §  682) ;  then,  I  fear  that  it  will 
not  happen.  The  translation  of  ot  by  that  not  and  of  n8  by  that  is  therefore  due 
only  to  the  demands  of  the  Englisii  idiom  and  not  to  any  real  change  in  the 
value  of  the  Latin  words  themselves- 


278  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE 

IV.  Object  clauses  with  the  subjunctive  are  used  after  verbs 
of  doubt  or  ignorance  that  are  negatived  or  imply  a  negative 
—  non  dubito,  quis  dubitat,  quis  ignorat,  etc.  The  object  clause 
is  introduced  by  quin. 

non  dubitat  quin  Troia  peritura  sit,  he  does  7iot  doubt  that  Troy  will 

fall 
non  dubito  quin  supplicium  sumaU  I  do  not  doubt  that  he  will  inflict 

PunisJunent 
quis  ignorat  quin  tria  genera  sint,  who  is  ignorant  that  there  are 

three  kinds? 

a.  Similarly  negatived  expressions  of  doubt  —  non  est  dubium,  there 
is  no  doubt ;  non  abest  suspicio,  suspicion  is  not  wanting ;  etc.  —  are 
followed  by  quin  and  the  subjunctive. 

non  erat  dubium  quin  Helvetii  plurimum  possent,  there  was  no  doubt 
that  the  Helvetii  were  the  most  powerful 

neque  abest  suspicio  quin  ipse  sibi  mortem  consdverit,  nor  is  the  sus- 
picion wanting  that  he  committed  suicide 

Note.  Dubito,  doubt,  without  a  negative,  is  generally  followed  by  an 
indirect  question  (§  813);  and  in  the  s'  nse  of  hesitate,  regularly  by  the 
infinitive  (§  837),  but  sometimes  by  quin  Ui.^  mc  "Subjunctive. 

721.  Subject  Clauses  of  Purpose.  Subject  clauses  of  purpose 
with  the  subjunctive  are  used  after  the  passive  of  verbs  that  in 
the  active  take  object  clauses  (see  §  720). 

persuadetur  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  Casticus  is  persuaded  to 
seize  the  royal  power  (lit.  it  is  persuaded  to  Casticus  that  he 
seize  etc.) 

erat  ei  praeceptum  ne  proelium  committeret,  it  had  been  enjoined  upon 

him  that  he  should  not  engage  in  battle 

u 

722.  Subject  clauses  of  purpose  with  the  subjunctive  are 
used  with  licet,  oportet,  and  necesse  est,  usually  without  ut. 

licet  queramur,  it  is  allowed  us  to  complain 
sint  enim  oportet,  for  they  must  exist 


CLAUSES  OF  DESCRIPTION  279 

723.  Subject  clauses  of  purpose  with  the  subjunctive  are 
used  with  impersonal  expressions  Hke  reliquum  est,  sequitur, 
opus  est,  16x  est,  mOs  est,  etc.,  when  the  dependent  clause  does 
not  state  a  fact  already  existing^  but  looks  forward  to  some- 
thing yet  to  come. 

reliquum  est  ut  dicam,  it  remains  for  me  to  say 

est  lex  amicitiae  ut  idem  amici  velint,  it  is  a  law  of  friendship  that 
friends  should  have  the  same  wish 

Note.  Compare  subject  clauses  of  result,  which  state  a  fact  (§§  738,  739). 

724.  Clauses  of  Purpose  as  Appositives.  Subjunctive  clauses, 
introduced  by  ut  or  n6,  may  be  used  as  appositives  to  nouns  or 
pronouns. 

in  hoc  iinum  vivo,  ut  patriae  prosim,  I  am  living  for  this  one  thing, 

that  I  may  be  of  sen'ice  to  my  country  » 

id  agunt,  ut  omnes  videant.  they  strii'c  for  this,  that  all  may  see 
haec  erat   lex,  ut  omnes   interficerentur.  this  was  the  law,  that  all 
should  be  killed 

725.  Developed  from  the  volitive  subjunctive  in  its  deliberative 
use  are  substantive  clauses  following  such  expressions  as  niilla  causa 
est  cur  (qua  r6,  quin),  nOn  est  cdr,  etc. 

niilla  causa  est  cur  earn,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  should  go  (originally 
why  should  I  go  ?    There  is  no  reason) 

For  other  ways  of  expressing  purpose,  and  for  a  summary  of  them 
all,  see  §  882.  I,  footnote. 

Subjunctive  Clauses  of  Description  or  Characteristic 

726.  A  relative  clause  that  describes  an  antecedent  by  telling 
what  kind  of  person  or  thing  it  is,  is  called  a  clause  of  descrip- 
tion or  characteristic  and  takes  the  subjunctive.* 

1  This  construction  has  its  origin  in  the  potential  subjunctive  (§  684),  the 

idea  oi  possibility  easily  passing  over  into  that  of  quality  ox  characteristic  (com- 

nare  there  is  no  one  who  would  be  able  with  there  is  no  one  ivho  is  able).    It  is 

specially  common  when  the  antecedent  is  otherwise  undefined  or  general, 


28o  CLAUSES  OF  DESCRIPTION 

nihil  vide5  quod  timeam,  I  see  nothing  to  fear  (lit.  which  I  fear) 
multa  dicunt  quae  vix  intellegam,  they  say  many  things  which  (such  as) 

/  ha?-dly  understand 
erat  nullum  oppidum  quod  se  defenderet,  there  was  no  tow?i  which 

defended  itself  (stated  not  as  a  fact  but  as  a  characteristic) 
erant  omnino  itinera  duo  quibus  itineribus  domo  exire  possent,  there 

were  in  all  two  ways  by  which  they  could  go  forth  from  home 
nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem,  I  had  7iothing  to  write 

727.  Relative  clauses  of  description  or  characteristic  are 
used  especially  after  general  expressions  of  existence  or  non- 
existence : 

sunt  qui,  there  are  some  who 
nemo  or  niillus  est  qui,  there  is  no  one  who 
nihil  est  quod,  there  is  7iothing  which 
,         quis  est  qui,  who  is  there  who 
is  qui,  the  ofie  who 
iinus  or  s51us  qui,  the  only  one  who 

sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think 

domi  nihil  erat  quo  famem  tolerdrent,  there  was  jtothing  at  home  by 

which  to  sustain  hunger 
quis  est  qui  eum  non  laudet^  who  is  there  that  does  not  praise  him  ? 
non  is  sum  qui  hoc  facial^  I  am  not  the  matt  to  do  this 

Note.  After  expressions  like  multi  (non  niilli,  quidam)  sunt  qui,  where 
the  antecedent  is  partially  defined,  the  choice  of  mood  depends  on  the 
shade  of  meaning. 

728.  After  nem5,  niillus,  nihil,  or  quis  the  clause  of  descrip- 
tion or  characteristic  may  be  introduced  by  quin  instead  of  qui 
(quae,  quod)  non. 

nemo  est  quin  sciat,  there  is  no  one  who  does  not  know 

quis  est  qidn  intellegat,  who  is  there  who  does  not  utiderstand  f 

and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  relative  clause  with  the  indicative,  which 
states  a  fact  about  the  antecedent  and  does  not  describe  it :  thus,  nulla  est 
nati5  quam  pertimescimus  (indicative)  means  //lere  is  no  nation  luhich  (as  a  fact) 
we  fear  \  whereas  nulla  est  natio  quam  pertimescdmus  (subjunctive)  means  tAere 
is  no  nation  which  is  of  suck  a  character  that  we  fear  it. 


CLAUSES  OF  RESULT  281 

729.  Included  under  relative  clauses  of  description  or  character- 
istic are  restrictive  clauses  like  quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know ;  quod 
Knv^ntAm,  so  far  as  I  have  discovered  \  etc. 

n5n  ego  te,  quod  scianif  umquam  ante  hunc  diem  vidi,  so  far  as  I  knotUy 
I  have  neiter  seen  you  before  this  day 

730.  The  relative  clause  of  description  or  characteristic  may 
express  cause  or  concession. 

I.  The  relative  clause  of  description  or  characteristic  may 
express  cause,  the  relative  —  equivalent  to  cum  is,  since  he  — 
being  often  accompanied  by  ut,  utpote,  or  quippe. 

incusant  Belgas  qui  se  dediderint,  they  blame  the  Belga  who  have 

(=  because  they  have)  surrendered 
Caesar  iniuriam  facit  qui  vectigalia  deteriSra  facmt,  Caesar  is  doing  an 

injustice  since  he  is  inakini^  the  reventtes  less 
c5nsul,  ut  qui  id  ipsum  quaesisset,  moram  non  fecit,  the  consul,  since  he 

had  sought  that  very  thing,  did  not  delay 

II.  The  relative  clause  of  description  or  characteristic  may 
express  concession,  the  relative  being  equivalent  to  cum  is,  though 
he,  and  the  clause  expressing  something  in  spite  of  which  the 
main  statement  is  true. 

Cicero,  ([ui  omnes  superiores  dies  milites  in  castris  continuisset,  septimS 
die  quinque  cohortes  frumentatum  mittit,  Cicero,  though  he  had 
kept  his  soldiers  in  camp  on  all  the  preceding  days,  on  the 
seventh  day  sent  five  cohorts  to  gather  grain 

Note.    The  relative  clause  sometimes  amounts  to  a  proviso  (§  811), 

nihil  est  molestum  quod  non  desideris,  nothing  is  troublesome  which  you 
do  not  miss  ( =  provided  you  do  not  miss  it) 

Subjunctive  Clauses  of  Consequence  or  Result 

731.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  adverbial,  relative,  and 
substantive  clauses  to  express  consequence  or  result.^ 

*  The  use  of  the  subjunctive  to  express  result  is  a  development  of  its  use  in 
c  lauses  of  description  (§  726),  the  quality  which  would  lead  to  some  action 
readily  passing  over  into  a  real  action  resulting  from  a  quality.  This  step  leads 
to  clauses  of  pure  result  with  no  idea  of  description. 


282  CLAUSES  OF  RESULT 

1.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Result 

732.  An  adverbial  clause  denoting  consequence  or  result 
takes  the  subjunctive,  introduced  by  ut  or  uti,  so  that.  The 
negative  is  non. 

The  main  clause  often  contains  talis,  tantus,  tot,  is  (=  talis),  ita, 
adeo,  tarn,  or  some  other  word  of  quality  or  degree. 

mons  impendebat  ut  facile  perpauci  prohibere  possent,  a  viou7itam 

tou'e?'ed  above^  so  that  a  very  few  could  easily  keep  (them)  back 
eius  modi  sunt  tempestates  c5nseciitae  uti  opus  intermitteretur,  storms 

of  such  a  character  folloived  that  the  work  was  interrupted 
flumen  incredibili  lenitate  fluit  ita  ut  oculis,  in  utram  partem  fluat, 

itidicarl  non  possit,  the  river  flows  with  incredible  slowness,  so  that 

it  cannot  be  determitted  by  the  eyes  in  which  direction  it  flows 
tanta  vis  probitatis  est  ut  earn  in  hoste  diligdmus,  so  great  is  the  power 

of  goodness  that  we  love  it  even  in  an  enetny 

Note.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  constructions  of  purpose  and  result 
in  Latin  are  precisely  alike  in  the  affirfnative,  but  that  negative  purpose 
has  ne,  negati^ie  result  ut  non. 

a.  Instead  of  ne  quis,  ne  quid,  ne  ullus,  etc.,  used  to  introduce 
negative  purpose  clauses,  negative  result  clauses  have  ut  nemo,  ut 
nihil,  ut  niillus,  etc. 

se  occultabant  ne  quis  eos  cernere  posset,  they  concealed  themselves  that 

no  one  might  be  able  to  see  them  (purpose) 
se  occultabant  ut  nemo  eos  cernere  posset,  they  concealed  thefnselves  so 
that  no  otie  could  see  them  (result) 

733.  A  clause  of  result  or  characteristic  with  quam  ut,  quam  qui, 
rarely  with  quam  alone,  may  be  used  after  a  comparative. 

haec  signa  rigidi5ra  sunt  quam  <  \  imitentur  veritatem,  these  statues 

are  too  stiff  to  {stiffer  than  that  they  should)  represent  nature 
senior  erat  quam  ut  pugndret,  he  was  too  old  to  fight 

734.  A  clause  of  result  is  sometimes  used  in  a  restrictive  sense  and 
so  amounts  to  a  proviso  (§  8ii). 

vobis  ita  concedunt  ut  vobiscum  certent,  they  yield  to  you  only  to  the 
extent  that  they  vie  with  you 


CLAUSES  OF  RESULT  283 

II.  Relative  Clauses  of  Result 

735.  Relative    clauses    of    result,    introduced    by    qui,    quin 
equivalent  to  qui  nOn),  or  a  relative  adverb  (ubi,  unde,  qu6,  etc.), 

are  developed  from  the  relative  clause  of  description  or  charac- 
teristic (§  726),  and,  as  a  rule,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  it. 

nulla  est  celeritas  quae  possit  cum  animi  celeritate  contendere,  there* is 
tio  sivi/tncss  tJiiit  can  compare  with  the  swiftness  of  the  mind 

cem5  erat  adeO  tardus  quin  putarety  no  one  was  so  slothful  as  not  to 
(=  who  did  not)  think 

n5n  habet  undt  te  solvat,  he  has  no  resources  fro tn  which  (lit.  has  not 
whence)  to  pay  you 

No  IK.  Here  belong  such  expressions  as  facere  non  possum  quin,  fieri 
non  potest  quin,  with  the  subjunctive. 

facere  non  possum  "|  ^.  J  cannot  but  speak  (lit.  /  am  not  able 

fieri  non  potest       J  ^  r        ^ 

to  act  so  that  I  do  not,  or  //  cannot  happen  that  J  do  not) 

III.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result 

736.  Substantive  clauses  developed  from  the  potential  subjunctive 
are  generally  called  substantive  clauses  of  result ;  but  the  idea  of  result 
is  often  weak  or  lacking  altogether,  and  the  subjunctive  is  translated 
like  an  indicative  stating  a  fact.   They  are  introduced  by  ut  or  ut  nOn. 

Note.    Compare  substantive  clauses  of  purpose  (§  719). 

737.  Object  Clauses  of  Result.  Substantive  clauses  of  result 
are  used  as  the  object  of  verbs  of  bringing  about  and  accom- 
plishing (facMJ,  efficifl,  perficiO,  etc.)  when  the  dependent  clause 
states  a  fact. 

eflaciam  irf  intettegatis,  J  will  make  you  understand  (lit  that  you 

understand) 
cflaciebat  ut  commeatus  portiri  possent,  he  made  it  possible  for  supplies 

to  he  brought 
obsides  ufi  inter  se  dent  perficit,  he  brings  if  about  that  they  give 

hostages  to  each  other 


284  CLAUSES  OF  RESULT 

738.  Subject  Clauses  of  Result.  Substantive  clauses  of  result 
stating  a  fact  are  used  as  the  subject  of  passive  verbs  denoting 
bringing  about  and  accomplishing. 

factum  est  ut  German!  mercede  arcesserentur^  it  was  brought  about  that 
the  Germafis  were  invited  for  pay 

*  739.  Substantive  clauses  of  result  stating  a  fact  are  used  as 
subject  with  impersonals  like  fit,  accidit,  evenit,  it  happens ; 
relinquitur,  restat,  reliquum  est,  it  remains ;  accedit,  it  is  added ; 
est,  it  is  a  fact ;  sequitur,  efficitur,  it  follows. 

accidit  ut  esset  luna  plena,  //  happened  that  there  was  a  full  moon 
reliquum  est  i/f  mihi  ipsi  consulam,  the  fact  remains  that  I  consult  for 

jnyself 
ad  senectiitem  accedebat  ut  caecus  esset,  to  his  ol^i  age  was  added  the 
fact  that  he  was  blind 

740.  Fore  (or  futiiruin  esse)  ut  with  a  clause  of  result  as  subject 
is  regularly  used  for  the  future  passive  infinitive,  and  for  the  future 
active  infinitive  vi^hen  this  is  lacking. 

vide5  fore  ut  hostes  vincantur,  I  see  that  the  enemy  will  be  conquered 
spero  fore  ut  contingat,  I  hope  that  it  will  happen 

741.  Clauses  of  Result  as  Appositives  or  Predicate  Nouns. 
A  substantive  clause  of  result  stating  a  fact  may  be  in  apposi- 
tion with  a  noun  or  neuter  pronoun,  or  may  serve  as  a  predicate 
noun  after  m6s  est,  ius  est,  and  similar  expressions. 

banc  gratiam  refert,  ut  gravetur,  he  makes  this  return,  that  he  objects 
id  est  proprium  civitatis,  ut  sit  libera,  this  is  characteristic  of  a  state ^ 

that  it  is  free 
ea  est  vis  probitatis,  ut  earn  vel  in  hoste  dUigdmus,  such  i^  the  power 

of  integrity  that  we  love  it  even  in  an  enemy 
est  m5s  hominum  ut  nolint  eundem  pluribus  rebus  excellere,  it  is  the 

way  of  men  that  they  do  not  wish  the  same  person  to  excel  in 

several  respects 


CLAUSES  WITH  POSTQUAM,  UBl   UT,  ETC.      285 
Temporal  Clauses 

742.  Temporal  clauses  are  adverbial  and  express  time. 

743.  Temporal  clauses  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

I.  Clauses  with  po8tqUam,ubi,ut, etc.,  with  the  indicative (§§  745  ff.). 

II.  Clauses  with  cum,  with  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  (§§  749  fT.). 

III.  Clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam,  with  the  indicative  or 
subjunctive  (§§  757  ff.). 

IV.  Clauses  with  dum,  dOnec,  quoad,  and  quam  difi,  with  the  indic- 
ative or  subjunctive  (§§  762  ff.). 

Observe  that  only  with  the  first  of  these  varieties  is  the  indicative 
always  used. 

744.  In  general,  expressions  of  pure  time  are  in  the  indica- 
tive. The  subjunctive  is  used  when  the  time  relation  is  modi- 
fied by  some  other  notion,  as  description,  cause,  concession^ 
doubt,  purpose,  and  the  like. 

I.  Temporal  Clauses  with  postguamj  ubi^  ut,  etc. 

745.  Clauses  introduced  by  postquam  (posteaquam),  after; 
ubi,  ut,  U'/ien ;  cum  primum,  simul  atque  (simul  ac,  or  simul 
alone),  as  soon  as,  take  the  indicative,  —  usually  in  the  perfect 
or  the  historical  present. 

postquam  id  animum  advertit,' cb^ias  suas  Caesar  subducit,  tr/ie-r  Ccpsar 

noticed  tliis^  he  wii/u/rew  /us /ones 
Caesar,  ubi  su5s  urgeri  vtdii,  prScessit,  when  Casar  saw  that  his  vien 

were  hard  pressed,  he  adi'attced 
Catilina,  ubi  e5s  convenisse  videt,  secedit,  when  Catiline  sees  that  they 

ha7>e  come  together,  he  retires 
simul  atque  introductus  est,  rem  c5nfecit,  as  soon  as  he  was  brought  in^ 

he  Jittished  the  matter 

746.  Ut  and  ubi  (sometimes  compounded  with  -cumque)  in  the 
sense  of  whenever  take  the  perfect  indicative  after  a  primary  tense 
and  the  past  perfect  after  a  secondary  tense  (cf.  §  800.  a\ 


286  TEMPORAL  CLAUSES 

ut  quisque  venitj  accedo,  wheneve7'  any  one  conies  {has  come),  I  go 

to  him 
etiam  senex,  uhi  occasi5  data  eraty  discebat,  even  in  old  age  he  learned 

whenever  oppo7'tunity  was  given 

747.  To  denote  a  definite  interval  of  time  after,  postquam  regu- 
larly takes  the  past  perfect  indicative.  When  thus  used,  post  is 
usually  separated  from  quam  and  placed  in  the  main  clause  as  a 
preposition  or  adverb,  or  is  sometimes  omitted  altogether. 

pugnatum  est  post  paucos  dies  (or  paucis  post  diebus)  quam  pervenerat, 

the  battle  was  fought  a  few  days  after  he  arrived 
tertio  anno  quam  Aristides  mortuus  erat,  three  yeaj's  after  Aristides  died 

748.  Postquam,  ubi,  ut,  etc,  are  used  with  the  past  descriptive  in- 
dicative to  denote  a  continued  state  in  past  time. 

ubi  nemo  obvius  ibaty  ad  castra  hostium  tendunt,  whe?t  no  one  catne 
to  7neet  the?n,  they  hastened  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy 

II.  Temporal  Clauses  with  cum 

749.  Cum  Clauses  with  the  Indicative.  A  cum  clause  refer- 
ring to  present  or  future  time  takes  the  indicative. 

animus  nee  cum  adest  nee  cum  discedit  apparet,  the  soul  is  not  visible 

either  when  it  is  present  or  whefi  it  departs 
te  videre  volo,  cum  id  satis  eommode  facere  potero,  I  wish  to  see  you, 

when  I  can  do  so  cojiveniently 
cum  veneris,  cognosces,  when  you  {shq^ll  have)  come,  you  will  find  out 

Note.  Observe  that  the  English  present  is  represented  by  the  Latin 
future  in  the  second  example  and  by  the  future  perfect  in  the  third.  This 
precision  in  expressing  time  is  characteristic  of  Latin.    Cf.  §§  657,  663. 

fl.  A  cum  clause  with  the  indicative  is  used  to  explain  one  act  as 
identical  with  another  {explicative  cum). 

cum  quiescunty  probant,  when  they  are  silent,  they  approve 

750.  A  cum  clause  referring  to  past  time  takes  the  indicative 
when  it  dates  or  defines  the  time  of  the  main  action  {definitive 
cum) . 


CLAUSES  WITH   Cl/M  287 

When  thus  used,  cum  is  often  found  in  the  combinations  eO  tempore 
cum,  ^  diS  cum,  nunc  cum,  Olim  cum,  n&per  cum.  tum  cum,  and 
the  like. 

paruit  eo  tempore  cum  parere  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  at  the  time  when 

it  luas  necessary  to  obey 
tum  cum  in  Asia  res  magnas  permulti  amtserant,  at  that  time  when 

many  had  lost ^reat  fortunes  in  .Isia,  etc. 
cum  Caesar  in  Galliam  venit,  factidnes  erant  duae,  when  Ccesar  came 

into  Gaul,  there  were  two  factions 
quern  ego  cum  ex  urbe  pellebam,  hoc  prdvidebam,  when  I  was  t tying  to 

drive  him  out  of  the  city,  I  7i<as  anticipating  this 
Conon  praetor  fuit  cum  Athenienses  divictfsunt  Conon  was  commander 
at  the  time  when  the  Athenians  were  defeated 

751.  Sometimes  an  independent  sentence  introduced  by  vix 
{hardl}'),  iam  (already'),  nOndum  (not  yet),  or  an  adverb  of  similar 
value,  is  followed  by  a  cum  clause,  subordinate  in  form,  but  express- 
ing the  principal  action.  In  this  use  (called  cum  inversitm)  cum  takes 
the  perfect  indicative  or  the  historical  present. 

Tix  veneram  cum  profectus  est  hardly  had  I  come  when  he  set  out 
vix  loqui  inceperam  cum  subito  ingressus  est,  hardly  had  J  begun  to 

speak  when  suddenly  he  entered 
vix  exercitus  processerat  cum  Galli  proelium  committunt,  hardly  had 

the  army  advanced  when  the  Gauls  joined  battle 

752.  Cum  meaning  whenever  (iterative  cum)  takes  the  same 
construction  as  ubi  in  this  sense.    See  §§  746,  8<x>.  ^. 

753.  Cam  Clauses  with  the  Subjunctive.  Cum  is  used  with 
the  past  or  past  perfect  subjunctive  to  describe  the  circumstances 
that  accompanied  or  preceded  the  action  of  the  main  verb 
(descriptive  cmvo)} 

'  Cum  (early  form  quom)  is  by  origin  a  relative,  and  has  constructions 
similar  to  qui.  In  early  Latin  it  took  the  indicative  in  all  tenses.  In  classic 
Latin  a  distinction  is  made  in  the  past  tenses  between  cum  Jefnttij^  a  time 
and  cum  describing  a  time.  Cum  liefinini^  a  time  takes  the  indicative  (§  750). 
like  an  indicative  qui  clause  ol  fact.  Ciun  descnhitig  a  time  takes  the  subjunc- 
tive, like  a  qui  clause  of  description  or  characteristic  (§  726).    T%e  cum  ilause 


288  CLAUSES  WITH    CUM 

Caesari  cum.  id  nuntidtum  esset,  maturat  proficisci,  w/ien  this  had  been 

announced  to  Cczsa?;  he  hastened  to  set  out 
fuit  antea  tempus  cum  Germanos  Galli  virtute  superdrent,  there  was 

formerly  a  tmie  when  the  Gauls  surpassed  the  Germans  in  valor 
cum  essem  5tiosus  domi,  accepi  tuas  litteras,  when  I  was  at  home 

taking  my  ease^  I  received  your  letter 
cum  esset  Caesar  in  citeriore  Gallia,  crebri  ad  eum  rumores  adferebantur, 

when  CcEsar  was  in  hither  Gaul^  frequent  j-eporis  were  brought 

to  him 
cum  ab  his  quaereret,  sic  reperiebat,  when  he  7nade  inquiries  fro7n 

these  men,  he  gained  the  following  informatio?i 
cum  de  improvisS  venisset,  Remi  legates  miserunt,  when  he  had  come 

unexpectedly,  the  Remi  sent  etivoys 

754.  Cum  Causal.  A  cum  clause  of  description  with  the 
subjunctive  sometimes  denotes  cause .  Cum  is  then  usually 
translated  by  since,  and  the  subjunctive  may  be  in  any  tense. 

id  difficile  non  est,  cum  tantum  valedmus,  this  is  not  difficult  since  we 

are  so  strong 
Haedui  cum  se  defendere  non  possent,  legates  mittunt,  since  the  Hcedui 

could  not  defend  themselves,  they  se?it  afnbassadors 
quae  cum  ita  sint^  eamus,  since  this  is  so,  let  us  go 

with  the  past  or  past  perfect  siibjii7ictive  is  the  7'egular  coiistrticiion  iti  7tarrative, 
and  has  largely  displaced  the  use  ofcnm.  with  u  past  tense  of  the  indicative,  even 
whe7'e  no  idea  of  characteristic  is  perceptible. 

The  difference  between  these  two  uses  of  cum  is  further  illustrated  by  the 
following  examples  in  English  : 

1.  Catiline  made  a  conspiracy  when  Cicero  was  consul.  Here  the  when 
clause  merely  defines  and  fixes  the  time  when  Catiline  made  his  conspiracy 
(63  B.C.),  and  the  main  statement  is  true  independently  of  Cicero's  being  consul. 
Catiline  would  have  made  his  conspiracy  just  the  same  if  Cicero  had  not 
been  consul. 

2.  Columbus  discovered  America  when  he  was  seeking  a  new  route  to  India. 
Here  the  wkeit  clause  does  not  define  or  date  the  time  of  the  discovery  of 
America ;  it  describes  the  circumstances  under  which  America  was  discovered, 
and  suggests  that  but  for  these  circumstances  Columbus  would  not  have  made 
the  discovery. 

The  Latin  would  use  the  indicative  in  the  first  sentence  and  the  subjunc- 
tive in  the  second. 


CLAUSES  WITH    CUM 


289 


Note  i.  With  this  may  be  compared  the  qui  clause  of  characteristic 
denoting  cause  (§  730.  I). 

Note  2.  Following  the  usage  of  early  Latin,  cum  causal  is  sometimes 
found  with  the  indicative  in  the  classical  period. 

gritulor  tibi  cum  tantum  votes  (Cicero),  /  congratulate  you  since  you  are 
so  tftjiuential,  or,  freely,  /  congratulate  you  on  your  influence 

755.  Cum  Concessive.  A  cum  clause  of  description  with  the 
subjunctive  may  denote  concession.  Cum  is  then  translated  by 
thottgh  or  while,  and  the  subjunctive  may  be  in  any  tense. 

cum  primi  concidissent,  tamen  reliqui  resistebant,  though  the  foremost 

had  fallen,  yet  the  others  kept  on  resisting 
Sabinus  castris  sese  tenebat,  cum  Viridoyiz  cotldie  pugnandi  potestatem 

faceret,  Sabinus  remained  in  camp,  though  Viridovix  daily  gave 

him  a  chance  to  fight 

a.  When  cum  .  .  .  tum  means  hoth  .  .  .  and,  the  cum  clause  is  in 
the  indicative ;  but  with  the  meaning  though  .  .  .  yet,  the  cum  clause 
is  generally  in  the  subjunctive. 

cSnsilium  tuum  cum  semper  probdvissem,  tum  mult5  magis  probavi 
lectis  tuis  proximis  litteris,  though  I  had  always  esteemed  your 
ivisdom,  yet  I  esteemed  it  much  more  after  reading  your  last  letter 


756.  Synopsis  of  cum  constructions  : 


I.   Indicative  uses  of  cum 


II.  Subjunctive  uses  of  cum* 


1.  In  clauses   referring  to  present  or 

future  time  (§  749) 

2.  In  clauses  referring  to  past  time  that 

define  the  time  of  the  main  action 
{definitive  cum  ;  §  750) 

3.  Cum  inversum  (§  751) 

4.  Cum    meaning   whenever  (iterative 

cum;  §  752) 

1.  With  the  past  or  past  perfect  sub- 

junctive in  clauses  of  description 
or  characteristic  {descriptive  cum  ; 

§  753) 

2.  Cum  causal  {since ;  §  754) 

3.  Ciun  concessive  {though  or  while', 

§755) 


290    CLAUSES  WITH  ANTEQUAM  AND  FRIUSQUAM 
III.  Temporal  Clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam 

757.  Clauses  introduced  by  antequam  or  priusquam,  before, 
are  relative  in  character,  and,  like  other  relative  clauses,  take 
the  indicative  in  expressions  of  real  or  assumed  fact  and  the 
subjunctive  to  express  other  relations. 

Note.  Antequam  and  priusquam  consist  of  the  adverbs  ante  {before) 
and  prius  {sooner)  combined  with  the  relative  conjunction  quam  {than). 
The  adverbs  often  stand  in  the  main  clause,  being  separated  from  quam  by 
other  words.   Priusquam  is  much  oftener  used  than  antequam. 

758.  Antequam  and  priusquam  with  the  Indicative.  The  in- 
dicative is  used  with  antequam  or  priusquam  to  express  a  real  or 
assumed  fact. 

a.  The  present  or  perfect  is  used  in  clauses  referring  to  present  time. 
priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  before  it  is  dawn,  they  are  present 

b.  The  present  or  future  perfect  is  used  in  clauses  referring  to 
future  time. 

priusquam  de  ceteris  rebus  responded,  de  amicitia  dicam,  before  I  reply 
in  regard  to  the  other  matters,  I  will  speak  about  friefids hip 

non  defatigabor  antequam  haec  percepero,  I  shall  not  weary  before  I 
(shall)  have  traced  out  these  things 

Note.    The  present  subjunctive  is  sometimes  found  in  uses  a  and  h. 

c.  The  perfect  is  used  in  clauses  referring  to  past  time. 

res  ita  se  habebant  antequam  vent,  things  were  in  that  co7iditioti  before 

I  came 
neque  prius  fugere  destiterunt  quam  ad  fliimen  pervenerunt,  nor  did  they 

stop  running  before  they  reached  the  river 

Note.  This  construction  is  especially  common  when  the  main  clause 
is  negative,  as  in  the  last  example  above. 

759.  Antequam  and  priusquam  with  the  Subjunctive.  The 
past  subjunctive  is  used  with  antequam  or  priusquam  in  clauses 
referring  to  past  time  :  {a)  to  denote  an  act  that  was  expected 
and  prepared  for  by  a  preceding  action  expressed  in  the  main 


CLAUSES  WITH  ANTEQC/AM  M^D  PRIUSQUAM    291 


clause ;  {b)  to  denote  an  act  that  was  expected  but  prevented 
by  a  preceding  action  expressed  in  the  main  clause. 

Caesar  8u5s  hortabatur  priusquam  proelium  committerent,  Ccesar  used  to 
address  his  men  before  they  joined  (should join)  battle.  [That  is,  in 
expectation  of  a  battle,  Caesar  prepared  his  men  by  addressing  them.] 

Caesar  Britanniae  litora  ezpldravit  priusquam  transeundi  periculum 
faceret,  Cctsar  explored  the  shores  of  Britain  before  he  made  the 
attempt  to  cross.  [That  is,  in  expectation  of  crossing  to  Britain, 
Caesar  explored  its  shores.] 

priusquam  telum  abici  posset,  omnis  acies  terga  vertit,  before  a  weapon 
iould  be  thrown,  the  whole  line  fed.  [That  is,  the  expected  hurling 
of  weapons  was  prevented  by  the  flight  of  the  enemy.] 

priusquam  effugere  posset,  interfectus  est,  before  he  could  escape,  he 
was  put  to  death 

Note  i.    Rarely  the  past  perfect  subjunctive  is  used  instead  of  the  past. 
Note  2.   After  the  historical  present  (§  648)  the  present  (rarely  the 
perfect)  subjunctive  may  be  used  instead  of  the  past. 

ab  e5  prius  milites  non  discedunt  quam  in  c5nspectum  Caesaris 
deducdtur,  the  soldiers  did  not  leave  him  before  he  was  conducted 
into   Cirsar's  presence 

Note  3.   The  subjunctive  with  antequam  or  priusquam  is  often  called 
the  subjunctive  of  expectation  or  anticipation. 

760.  The  later  writers  freely  use  the  past  subjunctive  with  ante- 
quam and  priusquam  even  when  no  idea  of  expectation  is  present. 

priusquam  peteret  consulatum,  insanit,  he  was  insane  before  he  sought 
the  consulship 

761.  Synopsis  of  constructions  with  antequam  and  priusquam  : 

I.  Present  time  —  indicative,  present  or  perfect  (§  758.  a) 
antequam        II.  Future  time — indicative,  present  or  future  perfect(§  758.  b) 
and       \  r  Indicative  (perfect)  to  state  an  actual  fact 

pnusquam  (§  758.  c) 

a.  To  denote  action   ex- 


UII.  Past  time 


.Subjunctive  (past) 


pected  and  prepared 
for  (§  759.  a) 
b.  To  denote   action    ex- 
pected but  prevented 
(§  759-  *) 


292     CLAUSES  WITH  DUM,  DONEC,   QUOAD,  ETC. 
IV.  Temporal  Clauses  with  dum^  donee ^  quoad,  and  quam  diu 

762.  Dum,  donee,  quoad,  and  quam  diu,  meaning  as  long  as, 
take  the  indicative. 

dum  anima  est,  est  spes,  as  long  as  there  is  life,  there  is  hope 

donee  gratus  eram  tibi,  rege  beatior  fui,  as  long  as  I  enjoyed  thy 

favor,  I  was  happier  than  a  king 
quoad  potuit,  restitit.  he  resisted  as  long  as  he  could 
quam  diu  mihi  insididtus  es,  me  defend!,  as  long  as  you  plotted  against 
me,  I  defended  myself 

763.  Dum,  meaning  while,  takes  the  indicative  in  the  his- 
torical present. 

The  historical  present  (§  648)  in  this  construction  is  generally 
translated  by  the  English  past  progressive. 

dum  haec  geruntur,  Caesari  nuntiatum  est,  while  this  was  going  on, 

'  word  was  brought  to  Ccesar 
dum   Romani    consultant,   iam    Saguntum    oppugnabatur,    while    the 
Roma7is  were  deliberating,  Sagu7itum  was  ab'eady  being  besieged 

Note.  As  shown  by  the  examples,  dum  with  the  present  denotes  /;/ 
the  time,  but  not  throughout  the  time.  In  the  latter  sense  dum,  though 
it  may  be  translated  by  while,  is  equivalent  to  as  long  as,  and  the  tenses 
present  no  pecuHarity  (§  762). 

764.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  meaning  until,  take  the  perfect 
indicative  to  denote  an  actual  fact  in  past  time. 

neque  finem  sequendi  fecerunt  quoad  praecipites  hostes  egerunt,  nor 

did  they  cease  ptirsui7ig  ujitil  they  7'outed  the  e7iemy 
donee  rediit,  silentium  fuit,  imtil  he  returned,  there  was  sile7ice 
Romae  fuerunt  quoad  Metellus  profectus  est,  they  remai7ied  at  Rome 

M7itil  Metellus  set  out 

765.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  meaning  tmtil,  take  the  present 
or  past  subjunctive  to  denote  pitrpose  or  expectation. 

exspectas  fortasse  dum  dicat,  you  are  waiting  perhaps  for  hi7n  to  say 
{U7itil  he  says) 


CAUSAL  CLAUSES 


293 


exspectavit  dum  reliquae  nav^s  convenirent,  he  waited  for  the  rest  of 
the  ships  to  join  him  {until  they  should  join  him) 

Horatius  impetum  sustinuit  quoad  ceteri  pontem  interrumperent,  Hora- 
tius  sustained  the  attack  until  the  rest  should  cut  down  the 
bridge 

Note.   The  present  and  future  perfect  indicative  are  occasionally  found. 

766.   Synopsis  of  constructions  with  dum,  dOnec,  quoad,  and 

quam  diu  : 

I.  Dum,  ddnec,  quoad,  quam  diu,  as  long  as,  indica- 
tive (§  762) 
II.  Dum,  while,  indicative  (historical  present ;  §  763) 
a.  Perfect  indicative  to  de- 


dum,  d5nec,  quoad. 


and  quam  diu 


III. 


Dum,  donee,  quoad, 
until 


note  an  actual  fact  in 
past  time  (§  764) 
Present  or  past  subjunc- 
tive to  denote  purpose 
or  expectation  (§  765) 


Causal  Clauses 

767.  Cause  is  expressed  in  Latin  by  three  kinds  of  clauses : 

L  Cum  clauses  of  description  (§  754). 
II.  Qui  clauses  of  description  or  characteristic  (§  730.  I). 
III.  Clauses  introduced  by  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  and  quandS. 

768.  Quod  and  quia,  because,  take  {a)  the  indicative  when 
the  writer  or  speaker  is  giving  his  otvn  reason  ;  {b)  the  sub- 
junctive when  he  is  giving  the  reason  of  another. 

a.  Indicative, 
fortissimi  sunt  Belgae  propterea  quod  longissime  absunt,  the  Belga 

are  the  brai'est  because  they  arc  the  farthest  away 
Helvetii  reliquos  Gall5s  virtute  praecedunt  quod  fere  cotidianis  proeliis 

cum  Germanis  contendunt,  the  Hcl^'ctii  excel  the  remaining  Gauls 

in  valor  because  they  jight  nearly  every  day  with  the  Germans 
leve  erat  Yulnus  quia  se  retrahibat  ab  ictu,  the  wound  was  slight 

because  he  drew  {himself)  back  from  the  blow 


294  CAUSAL  CLAUSES 

b.   Subjunctive. 

mihi  gratiae  aguntur  quod  virtute  mea  res  publica  sit  liberdta,  thanks 

are  given  to  me  because  (as  they  say)  the  state  has  been  set  free 
by  my  coui'age 

Haedui  querebantur  quod  Harudes  fines  populdrentur,  the  Hcedui  com- 
plained because  (as  they  said)  the  Harudes  were  laying  the 
country  waste 

mea  mater  irata  est  quia  non  redierim,  my  mother  is  angry  because  I 
didn't  return  (as  she  says) 

Note  i.  The  subjunctive  is  used  on  the  principle  of  impHed  indirect 
discourse  (§  906). 

Note  2.  Quia  regularly  introduces  a  statement  of  fact,  and  rarely  takes 
the  subjunctive. 

769.  Quoniam  and  quando,  since ^  introduce  a  reason  of  the 
writer  or  speaker,  and  take  the  indicative. 

quoniam  supplicati5  decreta  est,  celebratote  illos  dies,  since  a  thanks- 
giving has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days 

quando  ita  vfs,  di  bene  vortant,  since  you  so  wish,  may  the  gods  bless 
the  undertaking 

Note.  Quando,  originally  temporal  {when),  is  rarely  used  in  the  causal 
sense  in  classic  Latin  prose. 

770.  Non  quod,  non  quia,  and  non  quo  (for  non  eo  quod)  introduce 
a  possible  but  rejected  reason,  and  hence  take  the  subjunctive. 

haec  servanda  censeo,  non  quod  probem,  sed  quia  etc.,  /  think  these 
should  be  preserved,  not  because  I  approve  of  them,  but  because  etc. 

a.  Non  quin,  not  that  not,  with  the  subjunctive,  is  sometimes  used 
for  non  quod  non. 

volui  ad  te  scribere,  non  quin  confiderem  diligentiae  tuae,  sed  etc.,  / 
wished  to  zvritetoyou,  not  that  I  did  not  trust  your  diligence,  but  etc. 

h.  The  indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  clauses  of  this  sort  when 
the  statement  is  a  fact,  though  not  accepted  as  the  true  reason. 

haec  dixit  orator,  non  quod  timebat,  sed  quod  etc.,  the  orator  said  this, 
not  because  he  was  afraid  (as  he  really  was),  but  because  etc. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES 


295 


Causal  clauses  are 
expressed  by 


I.  Quod  and  quia  • 


771.  Synopsis  of  causal  constructions: 

a.  With  the  indicative  when  the 
writer  or  speaker  gives  his 
own  reason  (§  768.  a) 

b.  With  the  subjunctive  when  the 
writer  or  speaker  gives,  not 
his  own  reason,  but  the  reason 
alleged  by  another  (§  768.  b) 

II.  Quoniam  and  quandd  with  the  indicative  (§  769) 

III.  Cum  {since)  with  the  subjunctive  (§  754) 

IV.  Qui  with  the  subjunctive  (§  730.  I) 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES 

772.  A  clause  expressing  a  condition,  introduced  by  if  or 
by  some  equivalent  word,  is  called  a  conditional  clause. 

773.  A  sentence  that  contains  a  conditional  clause  is  called 
a  conditional  sentence. 

774.  A  conditional  sentence  is  complex  and  consists  of 
two  parts :  ^ 

fl.  A  subordinate  (adverbial)  clause,  commonly  introduced  by  si,  if 
and  expressing  the  condition. 

h.  A  principal  clause,  expressing  the  conclusion,  that  is,  the  state- 
ment which  is  true  in  case  the  condition  expressed  in  the  si  clause  is  true. 

81  obsides  ab  eis  dentur  (condition),  cum  eis  pacem  facial  (conclusion), 
if  hostages  should  be  given  by  them^  he  ivould  make  peace 
with  them 

Note.  The  term  "  condidon  "  is  often  applied  to  the  whole  sentence, 
including  the  condidon  and  conclusion. 

*  The  conditional  complex  sentence  has  arisen,  like  other  complex  sen- 
tences (§  708),  from  two  sentences  originally  independent  but  closely  related 
in  thought.  Thus,  laugh,  and  the  xoorld  laughs  with  you  is  an  earlier  and 
simpler  form  of  expression  than  if  you  laugh,  the  7oorld  laughs  with  you.  The 
conditional  particle  bI  was  originally  an  adverb  meaning  so,  and  its  conjunc- 
tional use  and  meaning  developed  later.  Conditional  sentences  without  si 
occur  in  all  periods  of  Latin  and  are  a  survival  of  the  earlier  linguistic  form. 


296  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES 

775.  Use  of  si  and  its  Compounds.  The  conditional  clause, 
when  affirmative ^  is  introduced  by  si,  if\  when  negative^  by 
nisi,  unless.  But  if  the  negative  applies  to  only  one  word, 
si  non  is  used  instead  of  nisi, 

actum  de  te  est  nisi  provides,  it  'j  all  over  with  you  unless  you  look  out 

si  non  easdem  opes  habemusy  eandem  tamen  patriam  habemus,  if  we  have 

not  the  sa?ne  resources,  we  have  nevertheless  the  same  native  land 

a.  Nisi  si,  except  if,  unless,  occurs  for  nisi.  Ni  for  nisi  is  mostly 
poetic  or  late. 

776.  Sin,  btct  if,  introduces  a  supposition  contrary  to  one 
that  precedes  ;  nisi  vero  or  nisi  forte  an  ironical  objection. 

accusator  ilium  defendet  si  poterit ;  sin  minus  poterit,  negabit,   the 

accuser  will  defend  him  if  he  can;  but  if  he  cannot,  he  will  refuse 

777.  Sive  (or  sen),   or  if,  is  generally  used  as  a  correlative 

(sive  (or  seu)  .  .  .  sive  (or  sen),  if  .  .  .  or  if  whether  .  .  .  or)  to 

introduce  alternative  conditional  clauses. 

facilis    est   res,   sive  manent  sive  proficiscuntur,    the   matter  is   easy, 
whether  they  stay  or  go 

Classification  of  Conditional  Sentences 

778.  Particular  and  General  Conditions.  Any  kind  of  condi- 
tional sentence  may  be  either  {a)  particular  or  {b)  general. 

a.  A  particular  condition  refers  to  a  definite  act,  or  series  of  acts, 
occurring  at  some  definite  time. 

h.  A  general  condition  refers  to  any  one  of  a  series  of  acts  which 
may  occur,  or  may  have  occurred,  at  any  time. 

For  example,  if  the  enemy  should  cross  the  river,  they  would  be  driven 
back  is  a  particular  condition ;  but  if  at  any  time  the  enemy  crosses  the 
river,  they  are  always  driven  back  is  a  general  condition. 

c.  Particular  and  general  conditions  usually  have  the  same  form. 
For  special  forms  of  general  conditions  see  §  8oo. 

779.  Conditional  sentences,  according  to  the  time  of  the 
supposed  case,  are  divided  into  three  classes  : 

I.  Present  conditions        II.  Future  conditions        III.  Past  conditions 


PRESENT  CONDITIONS  297 

780.  Present  and  past  conditions  are  of  two  kinds :  non- 
committal and  contrary  to  fact. 

781.  A  present  or  past  condition  is  non-committal 'w\\tx\  noth- 
ing is  said  or  implied  as  to  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  case  supposed. 

If  this  is  gold  (perhaps  it  is,  perhaps  it  is  n't),  //  is  valuable 

782.  A  present  or  past  condition  is  contrary  to  fact  when 
the  supposition  has  been  realized  and  found  to  be  false. 

Jf  this  were  gold  (bni  it  isn't),  /'/  would  be  valuable 

783.  Future  conditions  are  of  two  kinds :  more  definite  and 
less  definite. 

a.  A  more  definite  future  condition  states  a  future  possibility  dis- 
tinctly, expressing  a  doubt  as  to  whether  it  7tiill  or  will  not  be  the  case. 
If  this  pro%>es  to  be  gold  (that  remains  to  be  seen  and  is  a  future 
possibility),  //  will  be  valuable 

h.  A  less  definite  future  condition  states  a  future  possibility  less  dis- 
tinctly, expressing  a  doubt  as  to  whether  it  would  or  would  not  be 
the  case. 

If  this  should  prove  to  be  gold,  it  would  be  valuable 

I.  Present  Conditions 

784.  Present  conditions  are  either  non-committal  or  contrary 
to  fact. 

785.  Present  non-committal  conditions  regularly  take  the 
present  indicative  in  both  clauses. 

si  hacfadtf  lauddtur,  if  he  is  doing  this,  he  is  being  praised 
a.  The  verb  in  the  conclusion  of  a  present  non-committal  condition 
is  not  always  an  indicative,  but  may  be  a  hortatory  or  an  optative 
subjunctive,  an  imperative,  or  any  other  form  demanded  by  the  sense. 

81  llbertatem  servare  non  possumus,  moriamur,  if  we  cannot  preser^'e 
our  liberty,  let  us  die  (hortatory  subjunctive  in  the  conclusion) 

81  verum  non  dico,  dei  supplicium  sumant  if  I  am  not  speaking  the 
truth,  may  the  gods  punish  ///^(optative  subjunctivein  the  conclusion) 

81  ndndum  satis  cernitis,  recordaminl  if  you  eh  not  yet  see  clearly^ 
recollect  (imperative  in  the  conclusion) 


298  FUTURE  CONDITIONS 

786.  Present  conditions  contrary  to  fact  regularly  take  the 
past  subjunctive  in  both  clauses. 

si  hoc  faceretf  lauddretur,  if  he  were  doing  this  (but  he  is  not),  he 

would  be  praised  (at  the  present  time) 
si  dives  essem^  non  avarus  essem,  if  I  were  rich^  I  should  not  be 

avaricious 
si  viveret,  verba  eius  audlretis,  if  he  were  livings  you  would  hear  his 

words 

II.  Future  Conditiofis 

787.  Future  conditions  are  either  more  definite  or  less  defi- 
7tite,  and  express  future  possibility  (cf.  §  783). 

788.  More  definite  future  conditions  regularly  take  the  future 
indicative  in  both  clauses,  the  conclusion  stating  what  will 
be  the  result  if  the  condition  is  {shall  be)  realized. 

si  hoc /aczef,  lauddbitur,  if  he  does  {shall  do)  this,  he  will  be  praised 
si  dives  ero,  non  avarus  ero,  if  I  shall  be  rich,  I  shall  not  be  avaricious 
naturam  si  seguemur  ducem,  numquam  aberrdbimus,  if  we  {shall)  follow 

nature  as  guide,  we  shall  never  go  astray 
si  Galli  obsides  mittentj  Caesar  cum  eis  pacem  faciei,  if  the  Gauls 

{shall)  send  hostages,  CcEsar  will  make  peace  with  them 

Note.  In  English  the  conditional  clause  is  usually  expressed  by  the 
present  indicative,  rarely  by  the  future  with  shall. 

789.  Less  definite  future  conditions  regularly  take  the  present 
subjunctive  ^  in  both  clauses,  the  conclusion  stating  what  wotdd 
be  the  result  if  the  condition  should  be  realized. 

si  hoc  faciatf  laudetur,  if  he  should  do  this,  he  would  be  praised 

si  dives  s/m,  n5n  avarus  sim,  if  I  should  be  rich,  I  should  not  be 

avaricious 
haec  si  tecum  patria  loqudtur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  if  your  native 

land  should  thus  speak  with  you,  would  she  not  deserve  to  prevail? 
quod  si  quis  deus  mihi  largidtur^  valde  recusem,  if  some  god  should 

grant  me  this,  I  should  stoutly  refuse 

1  The  subjunctive  in  the  conditional  clause  of  a  less  definite  future  con- 
ditional sentence  is  hortatory  by  origin,  and  the  subjunctive  in  the  conclusion 
is  potential  (§  687). 


PAST  CONDITIONS  299 

790.  The  future  perfect  is  used  in  the  conditional  clause  instead 
of  the  future,  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  instead  of  the  present, 
when  the  conditional  act  is  regarded  as  completed  before  that  of 
the  conclusion  begins. 

id  si  fecerisy  magnam  habSbd  gratiam,  if  you  Jo  {shall  have  done) 

this,  I  shall  be  very  grateful 
si  relictus  sim^  non  possim  dicere,  if  I  should  be  {should  have  been) 

deserted,  I  should  be  unable  to  speak 

Note.    Not  infrequently  the  future  perfect  is  found  in  both  clauses. 

mihi  gratum  feteris  si  hunc  comprehenderis,  you  will  do  {will  have  done) 
me  a  favor  if  you  receive  {shall  have  received)  him 

III.  Past  Conditions 

791 .  Past  conditions  are  either  non-committal  or  contrary  to  fact 

792.  Past  non-committal  conditions  regularly  take  the  past 
descriptive  or  perfect  indicative  in  both  clauses. 

si  hoc  fadtbat  (or  fecit)^  laudabatur  (or  laudatus  est),  if  he  did  tJiis,  he 

was  praised 
si  dives  eram,  non  a  varus  eram,  if  J  ivas  rich,  I  was  not  avaricious 
si  ita  exJstimavistt,  vehementer  errdvisti,  if  you  thought  so,  you  were 

greatly  //list  a  ken 
si  probus  es,  poenam  non  meruistt,  if  you  are  good,  you  did  not  desen/e 

punishment.  [Non-committal  condition,  with  a  present  conditional 

clause  and  a  past  conclusion.] 

Note.  The  conclusion  of  a  past  non-committal  condition  may  assume 
a  great  variety  of  forms.    Cf.  §  785.  a. 

793.  Past  conditions  contrary  to  fact  regularly  take  the  past 

perfect  subjunctive  in  both  clauses. 

si  hoc  fecisset,  laudatus  esset,  if  he  had  done  this  (but  he  did  not),  he 

would  have  hee/i  praised 
si  dives  fuissem,  n6n  avanis  fuissem,  if  I  had  been  rich,  I  should  not 

have  been  avaricious 
ni«i  tfl  dnibissest  numqnam  nOpissem^  unless  you  had  lost  it,  I  should 

never  have  recovered  it 


300     PECULIARITIES  OF  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES 

Synopsis  of  Conditional  Sentences 

794.  The  use  of  moods  and  tenses  in  regular  conditional 
sentences  is  shown  in  the  synopsis  on  the  opposite  page. 

Special  Peculiarities  of  Conditional  Sentences 
Peculiar  Future  Conditions 

795.  The  conclusion  of  a  future  condition  may  be  in  any 
form  that  expresses  or  implies  future  time :  as,  the  imperative, 
the  present  indicative  of  the  periphrastic  conjugations  and  of 
verbs  of  necessity^  possibility,  and  the  like. 

quid,  si  hostes  veniant,  factufi  estis,  what  are  you  goifig  to  do  if  the 

etiemy  should  come  ? 
possum  istum  accusare,  si  cupiam,  I  cafi  accuse  him  if  I  desire 

796.  A  future  condition  is  sometimes  regarded  from  a  past  point 
of  view.  In  such  cases  the  past  or  past  perfect  subjunctive  is  used 
without  implying  that  the  condition  is  contrary  to  fact. 

Caesar  si  peteretj  non  quicquam  proficeret,  if  even  Ccesar  were  to  ask, 
he  would  gain  nothing.  [This  is  simply  si  petat,  non  proficiat, 
viewed  from  the  past.] 

Peculiar  Conditiojis  Co7itrary  to  Fact 

797.  Past  tenses  of  the  indicative  may  be  used  in  the  con- 
clusion of  conditions  contrary  to  fact,  as  follows : 

a.  With  verbs  like  oportet,  decet,  debeo,  possum,  necesse  est,  opus  est. 

h.  With  verbs  in  the  active  or  passive  periphrastic  conjugation. 

c.  With  longum,  aequum,  difficile,  melius,  etc.  in  such  expressions 
as  longum  erat,  //  would  be  tedious ;  difficile  erat,  //  woidd  be  difficult ; 
melius  fuerat,  it  would  have  been  better. 

non  potuit  fieri  sapiens,  nisi  natus  esset,  he  could  not  have  become  a 

sage  if  he  had  not  been  born 
81  privatus  esset,  tamen  is  erat  deligendus,  if  he  were  a  private  citizen, 
yet  he  ought  to  be  chosen 
Note.    In  this  construction  the  past  descriptive  indicative  usually  refers 
to  present  time,  and  the  perfect  or  past  perfect  to  past  time. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES        301 


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302 


GENERAL  CONDITIONS 


798.  The  past  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  either  the  condition  or 
the  conclusion  of  a  condition  contrary  to  fact,  to  denote  continued 
action  in  past  time  or  a  past  state  of  affairs  that  still  exists. 

Carthago  non  concidisset,  nisi  ea  urbs  classibus  nostris  pateret,  Car- 
thage would  not  have  fallen^  had  not  that  city  been  (constantly) 
open  to  our  fleets 

799.  In  poetry  the  present  subjunctive  is  sometimes  used,  instead 
of  the  past,  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact. 

nee,  si  sciat^  imperet  illis  (Ovid),  noT\  if  he  knew,  could  he  control  them 


Special  Forms  of  General  Conditions 

800.  Special  forms  of  general  conditions  (§  778.  b,  c),  denoting 
repeated  or  customary  action,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Time 

Condition 

Conclusion 

Present 

Present  subjunctive,  sec- 
ond person  singular,  of 
an    indefinite    subject, 
or  perfect  indicative 

Present  indicative 

Past 

Past  or  past  perfect  sub- 
junctive (rare  in  classic 
Latin),  or  past  perfect 
indicative 

Past  indicative 

memoria  minuitur  si  earn  n5n  exerceas,  the  memory  grows  weak  if  you 

don't  exercise  it 
si  quos  inutiles  notdverunt,  necari  iubent,  if  they  (ever)  7nark  any  as 

infirm,  they  (always)  order  them  to  be  put  to  death 
si  quis  prehenderetury  eripiebdtur,  if  any  one  was  (ever)  arrested,  he  was 

(always)  rescued 
si  quis  equo  deciderat,  circumsistebant,  if  any  one  {ever)  fell  from  his 

horse,  they  (always)  surrou?ided  him 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  REGULAR  CONDITIONS      303 

a.  General  conditions  are  often  introduced  by  cum  or  ubi,  meaning 
ivhenevtr  {ii  746,  752). 

cum  rosam  vfderat,  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur,  u>heneT.'er  he  saw  a 
rose,  then  lie  thotti^ht  spritti^  u>as  bei^innitig 

Note.  In  this  construction  the  perfect  indicative  is  usually  translated 
by  the  English  present,  and  the  past  p>erfect  by  the  English  past.  See 
examples  above. 

Conditional  Relative  Clauses 

801.  Relative  clauses  often  express  condition,  and  may  take 
the  place  of  any  of  the  forms  of  condition  found  in  conditional 
sentences. 

qut  mentiri  so/ef,  peierare  cSnsuevit,  whoever  is  in  the  habit  of  lying 
is  accustovied  to  swear  falsely.  [  =  si  quia  solet,  present  non- 
committal.] 

quisquis  hiic  venerit,  vapulabit,  whoever  comes  here  shall  get  a  thrash- 
ing.  [=  si  quis  venerit,  future  more  definite.] 

quaecumque  vos  causa  hiic  attulissetf  laetarer,  whatever  cause  had 
brought  you  here,  I  should  Ift  glad.  [  =  si  qua  .  .  .  attulisset, 
past  contrary  to  fact.] 

Substitutes  for  Regular  Conditions 

802.  Condition  may  be  expressed  by  a  word  or  a  phrase, 
instead  of  appearing  in  the  regular  form  with  si ;  or  it  may  be 
merely  implied  (§  687). 

facile  me  paterer,  UW  ipso  rudice  quaerente,  prO  R58ci5  dicere,  /  should 
readily  allow  myself  to  speak  for  Roscius,  if  that  very  judge 
were  conducting  the  case.  [Present  contrary  to  fact,  si  quaereret, 
paterer.  ] 

quid  hunc  pauc5rum  anndrum  accessio  iuvare  potuisset,  what  good 
could  the  addition  of  a  few  years  have  done  him  f  [Past  contrary 
*  to  fact,  si  accessissent,  quid  .  .  .  potuisset  ?] 

commove:  senties,  stir  him  uf> :  you  will  Jind  etc.  [Funire  more 
definite,  si  commovebis,  sentiSs.J 


304  CLAUSES  OF  COMPARISON 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison 

803.  Conditional  clauses  of  comparison  are  introduced  by 
comparative  particles  meaning  as  if,  and  take  the  subjunctive, 
present  or  perfect,  unless  the  sequence  of  tenses  requires  the 
past  or  the  past  perfect. 

a.  The  commoner  particles  meaning  as  if  are  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi, 
tamquam,  tamquam  si,  velut,  and  velut  si, 

absentis  Ariovisti  crudelitatem  horrent,  ye/wf  sf  coram  adsit^  they  shudder 
at  the  cruelty  of  Ariovistus  in  his  absence,  as  if  he  were  present 

absentis  Ariovisti  crudelitatem  horrebant,  velut  si  coram  adesset,  they 
shuddered  at  the  cruelty  of  Ariovistus  in  his  absence,  as  if  he 
were  pi'esent 

Note.  The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  past  or  past 
perfect  subjunctive  (contrary  to  fact)  in  these  clauses ;  but  from  the  Latin 
point  of  view  they  are  really  less  definite  future  conditions,  with  the  con- 
clusion omitted.  Thus  the  first  example  above  really  means,  they  shudder 
at  the  cruelty  of  Ariovistus  in  his  abse?tce,  as  (they  would  shudder)  if 
(at  some  future  time)  he  should  be  present.  In  other  words,  the  real 
conclusion  is  suppressed. 

Concessive  Clauses 

804.  Concessive  clauses  concede  something  or  state  that 
something  is  true  in  spite  of  something  else.  In  the  latter 
sense  they  are  sometimes  called  adversative  clauses. 

805.  Concession  is  often  expressed  by  the  volitive  subjunctive 
in  an  independent  sentence  (§§671,  ^'j'j),  but  it  more  frequently 
takes  a  dependent  form  and  shows  the  following  varieties : 

1.  Qui  clause  of  description,  with  the  subjunctive  (§  730.  II). 

2.  Cum  clause  of  description,  with  the  subjunctive  (§  755). 

3.  Quamquam,  etsi,  and  tametsi  with  the  indicative. 

4.  Quamvis  or  ut  with  the  subjunctive. 

5.  Licet  with  the  subjunctive. 

Note.  The  principal  clause  is  often  introduced  by  tamen,  yet, 
nevertheless. 


CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES  305 

806.  Quamquam,  etsi,  and  tametsi,  although^  introduce  an 
admitted  fact ^  and  take  the  indicative.^  ' 

quamquam  sunt  eiusdem  generis,  sunt  humaniOrSs,  although  they  are 

of  the  same  race,  they  are  more  civilized 
quamquam  oninis  virtus  n5s  ad  se  adUcitf  tamen  liberalitas  id  maximS 

ef&cit,  although  every  virtue  attracts  us,  yet  generosity  does  so 

Most  of  all 
etsi  sine  ull5  pericul5  proelium  fore  videbatf  tamen  committendum 

non  putabat,  although  he  saw  that  the  battle  would  be  without 

any  danger^  yet  he  did  not  think  that  it  should  be  begun 

807.  Quamqxiam  more  commonly  means  and  yet ^  and  introduces  a 
new  proposition  in  the  indicative. 

quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet ^  why  do  I  speak  t 

808.  Etsi,  tametsi,  etiam  si,  meaning  n^en  if,  are  really  conditional 
particles,  and  take  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  according  to  the 
rules  for  conditional  sentences  (§§  785-793). 

optimi  faciunt  quod  honestum  est,  etsi  nullum  emolumentum  c5nsecQ- 
turum  vident,  the  best  men  do  what  is  honorable,  even  if  they  see 
that  no  reward  will  follow.    [Present  non-committal.] 

nQnne  patria  impetrare  debeat,  etiam  si  vim  adhibere  ndn  possit,  should 
not  our  country  gain  its  request^  even  if  it  should  be  unable  to 
use  force?  [Future  less  definite.] 

809.  Quamvis,  to  whatever  degree,  however,  and  ut,  although, 
take  the  subjunctive.^ 

avari  indigent,  quamvis  divitSs  sint,  the  avaricious  are  poor,  however 

rich  they  may  be 
ut  omnia  contra  opini5nem  accidant,  tamen  plurimum  nivibus  possunt, 

though  everything  should  happen  contrary  to  expectation,  yet 

they  are  greatly  superior  in  ships 

a.  Quamvis  (quam  vis,  literally  as  (much  as)  you  wish)  is  generally 
used  in  expressions  involving  comparison  or  degree.  It  is  therefore 
often  found  with  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

quamvis  mail,  however  wicked         quamvis  multum,  however  much 

*  In  poetry  quamquam  occurs  with  the  subjv.  and  quamvis  with  the  indie. 


306  CLAUSES  OF  PROVISO 

810.  Licet,  although,  takes  the  present  or  perfect  subjunctive. 

licet  omnes  mihi  tenores  impendeant,  dicam,  though  all  terrors  should 
menace  me^  I  will  speak 

Note.  Licet  is  properly  a  verb  in  the  present  tense,  meaning  //  is 
granted.  Hence  the  subjunctive  following  it  is  limited  by  sequence  of 
tenses  to  the  present  or  perfect.  It  was  not  used  as  a  mere  conjunction 
until  after  Cicero. 

Clauses  of  Proviso 

811.  Dum,  modo,  and  dummodo  (dum  m(Ao),  provided,  if  only, 
introduce  a  proviso,  and  take  the  present  or  past  subjunctive. 
The  negative  is  ne. 

magno  me  metu  liberabis,  dum  modo  inter  me  atque  te  mums  intersit, 

you  will  7'elease  7ne  from  great  fear,  if  only  a  wall  is  between 

you  and  me 
dum  ne  tibi  videar,  n5n  Iab5r6,  provided  I  do  not  seein  so  to  you,  I  do 

not  care 
omnia  postposui,   dummodo  praeceptis  patris  parerem,  I  considered 

everything  else  of  secondary  importance,  if  only  I  might  obey  my 

father's  precepts 

Note.   This  is  a  development  of  the  volitive  subjunctive  (§  671). 

Indirect  Questions 

812.  An  indirect  question  is  a  dependent  substantive  clause, 
introduced  by  an  interrogative  word  (§621).  The  verb  is  in 
the  subjunctive.^ 

813.  Indirect  questions  depend  on  verbs  or  other  expressions 
of  asking,  doubting,  fearing,  thinking,  perceiving,  telling,  and 
the  hke,  and  are  usually  object  clauses. 

814.  Indirect  questions  are  introduced  by  interrogative  pro- 
nouns and  adverbs,  by  -ne  or  num,  or  by  si. 

1  In  early  Latin  the  indicative  is  used  in  indirect  questions.  The  origin  of 
the  subjunctive  construction  is  uncertain. 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  307 

a.  By  interrogative  pronouns  and  adverbs. 

ostendit  quae  fieri  vellet,  he  showed  what  he  wished  to  be  dene 

exponam  quid  sentiam,  I  icill  explain  what  1  think 

intellego  quanto  cum  periculd  id  fecerim,  I  understand  with  how  great 

danger  J  have  done  that 
nescit  uhi  sit,  he  does  not  know  where  he  is 

b.  By  -ne  or  num,  used  without  distinction,  in  the  sense  of  whether. 
c5n8uluit  possetne  id  fieri,  he  took  counsel  whether  it  could  be  done 
quaero  num  id  permittas,  I  ask  whether  you  allow  it 

c.  By  si,  in  the  sense  of  whether,  sometimes  with  omission  of  the 
governing  verb. 

SI  nostri  transirent,  hostes  exspectabant,  the  enemy  were  waiting  (to 

see)  whether  our  men  would  cross 

815.  Indirect  questions  referring  to  future  time  usually 
take  the  subjunctive  of  the  active  periphrastic  conjugation 
(§  668.  a). 

dicam  tibi  quid  factOms  sim,  1 7/  tell  you  what  I  am  going  to  do 

Note.  The  sentence  above  could  also  be  written  dicam  tibi  quid  faciam, 
but  this  might  be  translated  77/  tell  you  what  I  am  doing.  The  peri- 
phrastic forms  remove  all  ambiguity. 

816.  The  indirect  question  sometimes  represents,  not  a  direct 
question  in  the  indicative,  but  a  direct  rhetorical  question  in  the 
deliberative  subjunctive  (§  678). 

quo  me  vertam  nesciS,  /  do  not  know  which  way  to  turn.   [Direct 

form  :  quo  me  vertam,  whither  shall  I  turn  f\ 
Deque  satis  constabaf  quid  agerent,  and  it  was  not  -r'e/y  clear  what 

they  had  better  do.    [  Direct   form :    quid   agamus,   what  shall 

we  dof] 

817.  Indirect  alternative  questions  have  the  same  introduc- 
tory particles  as  direct  alternative  questions  (§  627),  but  or  not 
in  the  second  member  is  expressed  by  necne  rather  than  by 
annOn. 


308  QUOD  CLAUSES  OF  FACT 

c5nsuluerunt  utrum  statim  necaretur  an  in  aliud  tempus  reservaretur, 

they  deliberated  whether  he  should  be  killed  at  once  or  kept  for 

some  other  ti?ne 
deliberatur  de  Avarico,  incendi  placeat  an  defend!,  a  discussion  is  held 

concerning  Avaricuin^  whether  it  seems  desi?'able  that  it  be  burned 

or  defended 
quaesivi  a  Catilina,  in  conventu  fuisset  necne,  I  asked  Catiline  whether 

he  had  been  at  the  jneeting  or  not 

818.  Haud  scio  an  or  nescio  an,  /  a7n  inclined  to  thi?ik,  probably 
(literally  I  do  not  know  whether^^  takes  the  subjunctive  in  an  alternative 
indirect  question,  the  first  member  of  which  is  omitted. 

haud  scio  an  hoc  melius  sit,  I  am  incli7ied  to  think  that  this  is  better 
eloquentia  nescio  an  habuisset  parem  neminem  in  oratory  he  would 
probably  have  had  no  peer 

819.  Forsitan,  perhaps,  is  follov^^ed  by  the  subjunctive  in  an  indirect 
question,  the  adverb  standing  for  an  original  fors  sit  an,  //  would  be 
a  chafice  whether. 

forsitan  requiras  quae  fata  Priami  fuerint,  perhaps  you  inquire  what 
the  fate  of  Priam  was 

820.  Nescio  quis,  as  an  indefinite  pronoun  meaning  so7ne  one,  and 
the  adverbial  phrases  nescio  quo  modo,  nescio  quo  pacto,  somehow  \ 
nescio  quando,  at  some  time;  and  the  like,  are  not  followed  by  the 
subjunctive. 

nuper  nescio  quis  ex  me  quaesivit,  I'ecently  some  one  asked  7ne 
sed  nescio  quo  pacta  omnium  scelerum  matiiritas  nunc  erupit,  but  some- 
how the  ripeness  of  all  crimes  has  now  burst  fo'rth 


Quod  Clauses  of  Fact 

821 .  Dependent  substantive  clauses  introduced  by  quod,  thaty 
the  fact  that,  take  the  indicative. 

Like  other  substantive  clauses,  the  clause  of  fact  with  quod  may 
be  used  as  subject,  object,  appositive,  etc. 


QUOD  CLAUSES  OF  FACT  309 

822.  The  quod  clause  of  fact  is  used  as  subject,  especially 
after  verbs  of  happening  (fit,  accidit,  Cvcnit,  etc.)  modified  by 
adverbs  like  bene  or  male. 

quod  rediitf  nobis  mirabile  videtur,  Ma/  Ag  returned  seems  wonderful 

to  us 
bene  mihi  evenit,  quod  ad  mortem  mittor,  it  happens  well  for  me  that 

I  am  sent  to  death 
opportune  acciderat,  quod  legati  venerant,  it  had  happened  opportunely 

that  ambassadors  had  covie 

823.  The  quod  clause  of  fact  is  used  as  appositive  with  a 
preceding  noun  or  demonstrative  (hoc,  illud,  id,  inde,  ex  eO, 
propterea,  etc.). 

opportunissima  res  accidit,  quod  German!  venerunt,  a  very  fortunate 

thing  happened,  (namely)  tliat  the  Germatis  came 
in  hoc  sumus  sapientes,  quod  naturam  sequimur^  we  are  wise  in  this, 

that  we  follow  nature 
hoc  iinum  in  Alexandr5  vituperS,  quod  iracundus  fuit,  this  one  thing 

J  censure  in  Alexander,  that  he  was  quick-tempered 
h5€  est  miserior  fortuna,  quod  ne  in  occultS  quidem  queri  audent,  their 

lot  is  more  pitiful  in  this,  that  they  do  not  dare  to  complain  even 

in  secret 

824.  A  quod  clause  of  fact  is  sometimes  used  as  an  accusa- 
tive of  respect  (§  427),  quod  having  the  meaning  as  tOy  as  for 
the  fact  that.  Such  a  quod  clause  regularly  precedes  the  main 
clause. 

quod  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  falleris,  as  to  your  thinking 
that  J  emulate  ^{gamemnon,  you  are  mistaken 

quod  mihi  gratularis,  minimg  miramur,  as  to  your  congratulating  me, 
we  are  not  at  all  surprised 

825.  Substantive  clauses  with  quod,  substantive  clauses  with  ut  or 
n6  (§§  724,  739),  and  infinitive  clauses  with  subject  accusative  (§  839) 
are  constructions  so  nearly  equivalent  that  sometimes  any  one  of  the 
three  may  be  used  with  relatively  little  difference  in  meaning. 


3IO  TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

VERBAL  NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES 

826.  The  verbal  nouns  and  adjectives  are  the  infinitives, 
the  participles,  the  gerund,  and  the  supine. 

THE  INFINITIVE 

827.  The  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun,  that  is,  a  verb  form 
which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  noun.  Like  a  noun,  it  has 
certain  case  constructions  ;  like  a  verb,  it  has  tense  and  voice, 
may  be  modified  by  adverbs,  and  often  takes  an  object. 

Note.  The  forms  of  the  Latin  infinitive  are  by  origin  partly  dative 
and  partly  locative. 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive 

828.  The  tenses  of  the  infinitive  are  the  present,  perfect, 
and  future.  These  do  not  denote  time  independently,  but 
their  time  depends  on  that  denoted  by  the  leading  verb. 

a.  The  present  infinitive  denotes  the  same  time  as  that  of  the 
leading  verb. 

scio  te  scnhere^  I  know  that  you  are  writing 
sciebam  te  scribere,  /knew  that  you  were  writing 

b.  The  perfect  infinitive  denotes  time  before  that  of  the  leading  verb. 

scio  te  scripsisse,  I  know  that  you  have  written 
sciebam  te  scripsisse,  I  knew  that  you  had  written 

Note.  In  indirect  discourse  (§  887.  I.  b)  the  perfect  infinitive  may 
represent  any  past  tense  of  the  indicative. 

c.  The  future  infinitive  denotes  time  after  that  of  the  leading  verb. 

scio  te  scripturum  esse,  I  know  that  you  will  write 
sciebam  te  scripturum  esse,  I  knew  that  you  would  write 

Note.  The  future  infinitive  is  used  only  in  indirect  discourse  (§  887. 1,  b). 

829.  With  past  tenses  of  verbs  of  necessity,  propriety,  and 
possibility  (as  dfibui,  oportuit,  potui),  the  present  infinitive   is 


USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE  311 


>  he  ought  to  have  written 


generally  used  in  Latin  where  the  English  idiom  prefers  the 

perfect  infinitive, 
debuit  scrTbere 
oportuit  eum  scribere  _ 
potuit  scrfbere,  he  could  have  written 

illl  contra  patriam  arma  ferre  ndn  debuenmt,  they  ought  not  to  have 
borne  arms  against  their  country 

Note.  The  perfect  infinitive  when  used  emphasizes  the  idea  of  com- 
pleted action. 

830.  The  present  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  in  indirect  discourse 
to  express  continued  or  repeated  action  in  past  time,  standing  for  the 
past  descriptive  indicative  of  the  direct  discourse. 

te  memini  dicere,  I  remember  that  you  used  to  say.  [Direct :  dicSbas.] 

831.  Verbs  that  have  no  participial  stem  (§  209),  and  hence 
lack  the  future  infinitive,  use  as  its  equivalent  the  periphrastic 
form  futurum  esse  (or  fore)  with  ut  and  the  subjunctive. 

sperabat  fore  ut  pertinacia  desisteret,  he  hoped  that  he  would  cease 
from  his  obstinacy 

a.  The  same  periphrastic  construction  is  often  used,  especially  for 
the  future  passive  infinitive,  even  when  the  verb  has  a  participial  stem. 

dicit  fore  ut  urbs  dileatur,  he  says  that  the  city  will  be  destroyed. 
[Instead  of  dicit  urbem  deletum  iri.] 

Common  Uses  of  the  iNFiNmvE 

832.  In  general  the  infinitive  has  the  uses  of  a  neuter  noun. 

The  Infinitive  as  Subject 

833.  The  infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusative  (§  4 1 9), 
may  be  used  as  subject  with  est  and  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective. 

bellum  gerere  scelus  est,  to  wage  war  is  a  crime 

dolire  malum  est,  to  suffer  pain  is  an  einl 

perfacile  est  cOnata  perficen^  to  accomplish  their  undtrtakings  is 

'•ery  easy 
mirum  est  tS  nihil  scribere,  it  is  strange  that  you  write  nothing 


312  USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

a.  The  noun  or  adjective  in  the  predicate  is  sometimes  a  posses- 
sive genitive. 

iudicis  est  venim  sequi,  to  follow  truth  is  (the  duty)  of  a  judge 

834.  The  infinitive,  v^ith  or  without  a  subject  accusative 
(§419),  may  be  used  as  subject  with  impersonal  verbs  and 
expressions  like  libet,  licet,  oportet,  decet,  placet,  visum  est,  pudet, 
paenitet,  necesse  est,  opus  est,  constat,  fama  est,  interest,  refert,  etc. 

necesse  est  mori^  it  is  necessary  to  die 
visum  est  iter  facere,  it  seemed  best  to  march 

traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  the  report  has  been  handed  down 
that  Homer  was  blind 

a.  As  shown  in  the  last  example  above,  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective 
is  usually  in  the  accusative ;  but  if  the  impersonal  verb  or  expression 
is  followed  by  the  dative,  the  predicate  word  is  also  in  the  dative. 
Thus  regularly  with  licet. 

mihi  neglegenti  esse  non  licet,  it  is  not  permitted  7ne  to  be  negligent 

The  Infinitive  as  Appositive  or  Predicate  Noun 

835.  The  infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusative 
(§419),  may  be  used  as  an  appositive  or  as  a  predicate  noun. 

miserdri,  invidere,  gestire,  laetdri,  haec  omnia  morbos  Graeci  appellant,  to 

feel  pity  ^  envy^  desire^  joy  ^  all  these  things  the  Greeks  call  diseases 
videre  est  credere^  seeing  is  believing 
id  est  convenienter  naturae  vivere,  that  is  to  live  in  conformity  with 

nature 
hoc  tantum  peto,  te  non  prqficTscI,  I  ask  only  this,  that  you  do  not 

set  out 

The  Infinitive  as  Object 

836.  The  infinitive,  without  subject  accusative,  is  used  after 
many  verbs  to  denote  another  action  of  the  same  subject. 

This  is  called  the  complementary  infinitive^  because  it  completes  the 
thought  introduced  by  the  finite  verb. 


USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE  313 

Note.  With  transitive  verbs  the  complementary  infinitive  may  be 
regarded  as  the  direct  object.  With  intransitive  verbs  it  may  be  regarded 
as  an  adverbial  modifier. 

837.  Verbs  followed  by  the  complementary  infinitive  are 
especially  : 

V0I6  (n616,  malo),  cupi5,  opto,  studeo,  desire 

statuo,  c5nstitu5,  c5gito,  in  animd  habed,  decide^  plan 

coepi,  incipio.  pergo,  begin 

omittS,  desists,  cessS,  cease 

Conor,  nitor,  molior,  tempt5,  try 

contends,  matiiro,  proper5,  hasten 

metuo,  timed,  \txt(ii,/ear 

c5nsuesc6,  soled,  be  wont 

possum,  be  able 

debe5,  ought 

sci5,  know  hoib 

audeo,  diire 

dubit5,  hesitate 

discs,  learn 

cfinstituenint  ea  comparare,  they  decided  to  prepare  those  things 
copias  parare  cesserunt,  they  ceased  to  prepare  forces 
iudicarf  n5n  debet,  //  ought  not  to  be  judged 
iam  se  sustinere  n5n  poterat,  he  could  not  hold  up  longer 

a.  Some  verbs  take  either  a  subjunctive  clause  or  a  complementary 
infinitive  without  difference  in  meaning. 

contendit  oppidum  capert  or  contendit  ut  oppidum  caperet,  he  strove  to 

take  the  town 

838.  A  predicate  noun  or  adjective  after  a  complementary 
infinitive  is  in  the  nominative. 

fieri  doctior  studebam,  /  was  eager  to  become  wiser 
brevis  esse  laboro,  /  struggle  to  be  brief 

a.  The  infinitive  may  have  a  reflexive  pronoun  as  subject  accusative. 
In  that  case  the  predicate  noun  or  adjective  is  also  in  the  accusative. 

cupiS  m8  esse  cWnentem,  /  desire  to  be  merciful 


314  USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

839.  The  infinitive,  with  subject  accusative,  is  used  as  object 
with  the  following  classes  of  verbs : 

a.  Very  commonly  with  verbs  of  saying  (dico,  nuntio,  etc.),  think- 
mg  (puto,  existimo,  etc.),  knowing  (scio,  cognosce,  etc.),  and  perceiv- 
ing (video,  audio,  sentio,  etc.). 

This  is  the  regular  construction  of  principal  clauses  in  indirect 
discourse  (§  887.  I). 

legati  haec  se  reldturos  esse  dixerunt,  //le  ambassadors  said  that  they 

would  report  these  matters 
non  existimamus  Romanos  sine  ope  divina  bellum  gerere^  we  do  not 

think  that  the  Romans  wage  war  without  divifie  aid 
Caesar  cognovit  montem  a  suis  teneri,  Ccesar  learned  that  the  mountain 

was  held  by  his  me)i 
sentio  in  hac  urbe  esse  consules  vigilantes,  I  perceive  that  in  this  city 

there  a7'e  vigilant  consuls 

,  h.  With  V0I6,  nolo,  malo,  cupio,  and  studeo,  when  the  subject  of 
the  infinitive  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  governing  verb. 

nolo  te  suspectum  esse^  I  do  not  wish  you  to  be  suspected 
rem  ad  arma  deduct  studetis,  you  are  desirous  that  the  ?natter  be 
brought  to  (a  decision  of)  a?-ms 

c.  With  iubeo  and  veto. 

liberds  obsides  ad  se  addUci  iubet,  he  bids  the  children  to  be  brought  to 

him  as  hostages 
dux  captlvos  vindn  vetuit,  the  leader  forbade  the  captives  to  be  bound 

d.  With  sino  and  patior. 

Nervii  vinum  ad  se  inferri  non  patiebantur,  the  Nervii  did  not  permit 
wine  to  be  by-ought  to  them 

e.  With  verbs  of  feeling  or  emotion  :  as, 

gaudeo,  laetor,  rejoice 

doleo,  maereo.  grieve 

graviter  (moleste,  etc.)  fero,  be  annoyed 

miror,  admiror,  wonder^  be  surprised 

queror,  complain 

indignor,  be  indig?iant 


USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE  315 

miror  ti  nesdre,  I  am  surprised  that  you  do  not  know 
exercitum  hiemdre  in  Gallia  moleste  ferebant,  they  were  annoyed  that 
the  artny  was  ivitttering  in  Gaul 

Note.  As  most  of  these  verbs  imply  thinking  or  saying,  the  dependent 
construction  may  be  regarded  as  indirect  discourse  (§  885).  Verbs  of  this 
type  are  often  followed  by  a  causal  clause  with  quod  (§  768). 

840.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  with  the  passive  of  many 
verbs  which  in  the  active  take  the  infinitive  with  subject  accusa- 
tive ;  so  especially  with  dicor,  existimor,  iudicor,  putor,  videor,  and 
(in  the  third  person)  traditur,  traduntur,  fertur,  feruntur. 

centum  pagos  habere  dicuntur,  they  are  said  to  have  a  hundred  cantons 
Lycurgi  temporibus  Homenis  fuisse  traditur,  Homer  is  said  to  have 
lived  in  the  time  of  Lycurgus 

a.  Passive  verbs  with  the  infinitive  are  generally  personal  in  the 
present  system  and  impersonal  in  the  perfect  system. 

So  the  first  example  above,  with  the  passive  verb  changed  to  the 
perfect,  would  become  — 

eos  centum  pag6s  habere  dictum  est,  it  was  said  that  they  had  a 
hundred  cantons 

Note.  Narr5,  niintid,  and  trado  are  always  impersonal  in  the  perfect 
passive  system. 

Special  Uses  of  the  Infinitive 
The  Infinitive  with  Adjectives 

841.  Paratus,  suStus,  and  their  compounds  take  the  infinitive 
like  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived. 

omnia  perpett  parati,  ready  to  endure  e^'ery thing 
adsuefacti  superari,  used  to  being  conquered 

a.  This  construction  was  extended  in  poetry  and  late  prose  writers 
to  many  other  adjectives. 

durus  compdnere  versus,  harsh  in  composing  verse 


3i6  USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE 

The  Infinitive  of  Purpose 

842.  Poets  and  early  prose  writers  often  use  the  infinitive  to 
express  purpose,  contrary  to  the  usage  of  classic  prose. 

non  ferro  Libycos  populdre  Penates  venimus,  ive  have  not  co?ne  to  lay 

waste  with  the  sword  the  Libyan  homes 
loricam  donat  habere  vir5,  he  gives  the  hero  a  breastplate  to  wear 

The  Infinitive  in  Exclamation 

843.  The  infinitive,  with  or  without  the  interrogative  particle  -ne 
attached  to  the  emphatic  word  of  the  clause,  may  be  used  in  an 
exclamation  or  exclamatory  question  to  express  surprise^  anger, 
or  regret. 

te  in  tantas  aerumnas  propter  me  incidisse,  to  think  that  you  should 

have- fallen  into  such  grief  for  tne  / 
rnme  inceptS    desistere  victam,    what!    I   beaten    desist  from   my 

purpose  f 

'  a.  Exclamatory  questions  are  sometimes  expressed  by  the  sub- 
junctive with  or  without  ut. 

te  ut  uUa  res  frangat,  what  I  anything  crush  you  ? 


The  Historical  Infinitive 

■  844.  In  descriptive  narration  the  present  infinitive  may  be 
used  instead  of  the  past  descriptive  indicative,  and  has  its 
subject  in  the  nominative. 

cotidie  Caesar  Haeduds  frumentum  fldgitdre,  every  day  Ccesar  was 

asking  the  HcBdui  for  the  grain 
pars  cedere,  alii  insequi,  a  part  gave  way,  others  pressed  on 

Note.  This  construction  is  very  rare  in  subordinate  clauses  and  is 
never  used  to  state  a  mere  historical  fact.  It  is  always  descriptive,  and  is 
especially  common  where  several  important  actions  occur  in  rapid  succession, 
leading  to  a  climax  or  crisis. 


TENSES  OF  THE  PARTICIPLE  317 

The  Infinitive  as  a  Pure  Noun 

845.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  a  pure  noun,  and  as  such  may  be 
limited  by  an  adjective  or  may  be  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

hie  xmlfi  perdidit,  he  has  lost  his  sense  of  shame 

hoc  n5n  dolere,  this  freedom  from  pain 

scire  tuum,  your  knowledge 

nil  praeter  plordre^  nothing  except  tears 

PARTICIPLES 

846.  The  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective,  and  combines  all 
the  functions  of  an  adjective  with  some  of  the  functions  of  a 
verb.  Like  an  adjective,  it  agrees  with  a  noun  in  gender, 
number,  and  case  (§  497) ;  like  a  verb,  it  has  tense  and  voice, 
may  be  modified  by  adverbs,  and  often  takes  an  object. 

Tenses  of  the  Participle 

847.  The  tenses  of  the  participle  are  the  present,  past,  and 
future.  The  participle,  like  the  infinitive,  does  not  denote  time 
independently,  but  its  time  depends  on  that  denoted  by  the 
leading  verb. 

a.  The  present  participle  denotes  the  same  time  as  that  of  the 
leading  verb. 

video  militem  sequentem,  I  see  the  soldier  following 
vidi  militein  sequentem,  I  saw  the  soldier  following 

b.  The  past  participle  denotes  time  before  that  of  the  leading  verb. 

miles  secutus  adest,  the  soldier  followed  and  is  present  (lit.  having 

followed  is  present) 
miles  secutus  aderat,  the  soldier  had  followed  and  was  present 

c.  The  future  participle  denotes  time  after  that  of  the  leading  verb, 
miles  secutSrus  adest,  the  soldier  (who  is)  adout  to  follow  is  present 


3i8  TENSES  OF  THE  PARTICIPLE 

Tense  Peculiarities 

848.  The  past  participles  ratus,  solitus,  veritus,  regularly,  and 
others  occasionally,  are  used  as  present. 

rem  incredibilem  rati,  thinking  the  thing  incredible 
Insidias  veritus,  fearing  an  ambuscade 

849.  The  present  participle  sometimes  denotes  attempted  action. 

Flaminio  restitit  agrum   Picentem  dividenti,  he  resisted  Flaminius 
(who  was)  attempting  to  divide  the  Picetie  territory 

Lacking  Forms  of  the  Participle 

850.  As  compared  with  English,  the  Latin  participle  is 
defective.  It  lacks  {a)  the  present  passive  (cf.  English  being 
seen)  and  {b)  the  past  active  (cf.  English  having  seen). 

Note.  Deponent  verbs,  being  passive  in  form  but  active  in  meaning, 
are,  therefore,  the  only  verbs  capable  of  giving  a  literal  rendering  of  an 
English  perfect  active  participle :  as,  secutus,  having  followed. 

851 .  The  place  of  the  missing  present  passive  participle  is  supplied 
usually  by  a  clause  with  dum  or  cum. 

obiere  dum  calciantur  duo  Caesares,  two  Ccesars  died  while  their  shoes 

were  being  put  o?i 
me  ista  delectant  cum  Latine  dicuntur,  those  things  please  me,  being 

spoken  in  Latin 

852.  The  place  of  the  missing  past  active  participle  is  generally 
supplied  by  the  past  passive  participle  in  the  ablative  absolute,  or  by 
a  clause  with  cum  or  postquam. 

convocdtis  centurionihus  milites  certiores  facit,  having  called  the  cen- 

turio7is  together  (lit.  the  centurions  having  been  called  together), 

he  infor7ns  the  soldiers 
cum  venisset,  animadvertit  collem,  having  come  (lit.  when   he  had 

come),  he  noticed  a  hill 
postquam  id  animum  advertit,  copias  suas  in  proximum  collem  subducit, 

having  obser^'cd  this  (lit.  after  he  had  observed  this),  he  led  his 

troops  to  the  nearest  hill 


USES  OF  THE  PARTICIPLE  319 

Common  Uses  of  the  Participle 

858.  Like  a  verb,  the  participle  may  take  an  object  when 
its  meaning  allows.  Like  an  adjective  or  a  verb,  the  participle 
may  take  an  adverbial  modifier. 

videns  montem,  seeing  the  mountain 

hortatus  milites.  having  encouraged  the  soldiers 

magna  voce  loquens,  speaking  in  a  loud  voice 

854.  The  participle,  when  used  as  an  adjective,  may  be  either 
attributive  or  predicate. 

Attributive  Use  of  the  Participle 

855.  The  present  and  past  participles  are  sometimes  used 

as  attributive  adjectives. 

aeger  et  ftagrans  animus,  his  sick  and  passionate  mind 
mater  amata,  a  beloved  mother 

856.  The  only  future  active  participles  used  as  attributive 
adjectives  in  Ciceronian  I^tin  are  futurus  and  venturus.  The 
future  passive  participle  is  occasionally  so  used  at  all  periods. 

res  futuwae.  future  events 

n5n  ferenda  iniuria,  an  intolerable  wrong 

Predicate  Use  of  the  Participle 

857.  A  participle  in  the  predicate  may  be  joined  to  the 
subject  by  esse. 

Gallia  est  divlsa,  Gaul  is  divided 

858.  The  past  participle  is  used  with  the  incomplete  tenses 
of  esse  to  form  the  compound  tenses  of  the  passive. 

amatus  sum,  /  hai'e  been  loved 
amdtus  eram,  /  had  been  loved 
amatus  erd,  /  shall  have  been  lo-ved 


320  USES  OF  THE  PARTICIPLE 

859.  The  future  active  participle  in  -urns  is  used  with  the  forms 
of  sum  to  make  the  active  periphrastic  conjugation  (§  249.  a). 

amaturus  sum,  /  am  about  to  love 

praeter  quod  secum  portatun  erant,  except  what  they  intended  to 
carry  with  them 

860.  The  future  passive  participle  in  -ndus  is  used  with  the 
forms  of  sum  to  make  the  passive  periphrastic  coftjugatioji 
(§  249.  b). 

amandus  sum,  /  must  be  loved 

Caesari  omnia  uno  tempore  erant  agenda,  Ccesar  had  to  do  everything 

at  the  same  time  (lit.  everything  had  to  be  done  at  the  same 

ti?ne  by  CcEsar) 
omnes  cruciatus  sunt  perferendi,  all  (kinds  of)  cruelty  have  to  be  endured 

a.  Intransitive  verbs  are  always  impersonal  in  the  passive  peri- 
phrastic, and  take  their  usual  cases  (genitive,  dative,  or.  ablative). 

concedendum  esse  non  putabat,  he  did  not  think  that  he  ought  to  comply 

(lit.  that  it  ought  to  be  complied) 
tempori  serviendum  est,  one  must  obey  the  (demands  of  the)  time 
utendum  est  exercitationibus  modicis,  we  must  use  moderate  exercise 

b.  Transitive  verbs  are  occasionally  impersonal  in  the  passive  peri- 
phrastic, but  may  have  an  accusative  object. 

agitandum  est  vigilias,  /  have  got  to  sta?td guard 

861.  The  present  and  past  participles  are  often  used  as 
predicate,  where  in  English  a  phrase  or  a  subordinate  clause 
would  be  more  natural.  In  this  use  participles  express  especially 
time,  cause,  meajts,  mamier,  condition,  and  coficession. 

a.  Time. 

Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing  (or  /w  the  act  of 
writing) 

b.  Cause. 

quibus  rebus  Caesar  vehementer  commotus  maturandum  sibi  existi- 
mavit,  because  he  was  greatly  disturbed  by  these  facts,  CcEsar 
thought  that  he  ought  to  hasten 


USES  OF  THE  PARTICIPLE  321 

c.  Means. 

sdl  oriens  diem  c5nficit,  M^  sun,  by  Us  risings  causes  the  day 

d.  Manner. 

ftentis  impl5rabant,  they  begged  with  tears 

e.  ('ondition. 

damnation  poenam  sequi  oportSbat,  if  he  was  condemned,  punishment 
was  to  overtake  him 

f.  Concession. 

beneficid  adfectus  banc  gratiam  refert,  though  he  has  been  treated 
with  kindness,  he  makes  this  return 

862.  A  coordinate  clause  is  often  compressed  into  a  past  participle. 

instructos  5rdines  in  locum  aequum  deducit,  he  draws  up  the  lines,  and 
leads  them  to  level  ground 

Special  Uses  of  the  Participle 

863.  Participles,  like  adjectives,  may  be  used  as  nouns. 

recte  facta  paria  esse  debent,  right  deeds  ought  to  be  like  in  value 
opini5nem  pugnantium  praebent,  they  give  the  impression  of  men  fighting 

864.  Video,  audio,  faciO,  and  a  few  other  verbs  may  take  a  present 
participle  in  the  predicate  instead  of  an  infinitive. 

vidi  urbem  concidentem,  I  sa7i>  the  city  falling 

Xenophon  facit  S5cratem  disputantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates 
as  discussing 

865.  The  past  participle  is  used  with  habed  with  almost  the 
same  meaning  as  the  perfect  or  past  perfect  indicative  active. 

vectigalia  redempta  habet,  he  has  bought  up  the  revenues 

perfidiam  Haeduonim  perspectam  habitat,  he  had  observed  the  treachery 

of  the  Hccdui 

866.  A  noun  and  a  participle  are  often  so  combined  that  the 
participle  and  not  the  noun  contains  the  main  idea. 

ante  urbem  conditam,  before  the  founding  of  the  city 

post  natos  homines,  since  the  creation  of  man 

Sicilia  Sardiniaque  Smissae,  the  loss  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia 


322  GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE 

867.  The  past  participle  with  a  noun  in  agreement,  or  in  the  neuter 
as  an  abstract  noun,  is  used  in  the  ablative  with  opus,  need  (§  469.  b). 

opus  facto  est  viatico,  there  is  need  of  providing  traveling  expetises 
maturdto  opus  est,  t/iere  is  need  x)f  haste 

868.  The  future  active  participle  (rarely  the  present)  is  sometimes 
used  by  poets  and  late  writers  to  QXY>rQss  purpose. 

egreditur  vallum  invdsurus,  he  comes  forth  to  attack  the  rampai't 

869.  After  the  verbs  euro,  see  to\  do,  tradS,  mando,  give  over\ 
concedo,  surrender ;  relinqu5,  leave ;  suscipio,  tmdertake ;  loco, 
contract  for  \  and  a  few  others,  the  future  passive  participle  is 
used  in  agreement  with  the  object  to  denote  purpose. 

■pontem  faciendum  curavit,  he  saw  to  the  building  of  a  bridge 
agios  vdstandos  tradidit,  he  gave  over  the  fields  to  be  laid  waste 
signum  conlocandum  locaverunt,  the_y  contracted  to  have  the  statue 
erected 

THE  GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE 

870.  The  Gerundive  is  the  name  given  to  the  future  passive 
participle  when  used  as  a  verbal  adjective  in  agreement  with 
a  noun.  The  gerundive,  unlike  the  participle,  does  not  express 
necessity  or  obligation. 

bellum  gerendum  est,  the  war  must  be  waged.   [Participle.] 
cupidus  belli  gerendi,  desirous  of  waging  war.   [Gerundive.] 

871.  The  Gerund  is  the  neuter  singular  of  the  gerundive 
used  as  an  active  verbal  noun  in  the  genitive,  dative,  accusa- 
tive, and  ablative. 

Note.  The  nominative  singular  of  the  gerund  is  supplied  by  the  present 

active  infinitive :  as,  overcoming  (or  to  overcome)  danger  demands  courage. 

'  ^T  _      ( overcomihg^  ,    -   .  . 

NoM.   superarei  ^  }■  Infinitive 

Gen.  superandi,  of  overcoming  1 

DAT.  ^yxpttdiXi^,  for  overcoming  \ 

Ace.  superandum,  overcoming    [ 

Abl.  superando,  by  overcoming  J 


GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE  323 

872.  A  comparison  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  shows  the 
following  points  of  difference : 

a.  The  gerund  is  a  verbal  noun.  The  gerundive  is  a  verbal  adjective, 
ft.  The  gerund  is  active.    The  gerundive  is  passive. 
c.  The  gerund  may  stand  alone  or  with  an  object   The  gerundive 
always  accompanies  and  agrees  with  a  noun. 

Note  i.  The  gerund  and  gerundive  are  translated  in  the  same  way 
although  of  different  construction.  Thus,  apes  urbem  capiendJ  (gerund)  and 
spes  urbis  capiendae  (gerundive)  are  both  translated  /tope  of  taking  the  city ; 
but  the  latter,  rendered  literally,  would  be  hope  of  the  city  to  be  taken. 

Note  2.  To  change  from  the  gerund  to  the  gerundive  construction,  put 
the  object  of  the  gerund  into  the  case  of  the  gerund,  and  change  the  gerund 
to  a  gerundive  agreeing  with  it.    See  the  example  in  Note  i . 

Gase  Constructions  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive 

873.  The  gerund  and  gerundive  have  in  general  the  same 
case  constructions  as  nouns. 

874.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  with 
nouns  or  adjectives. 

Gerund  Gerundive 

c5nsilium  ^a^en</l  spatium, //m^y^^r  cdnsili   habendi  spatium,   tivte  for 

formini^  a  plan  fotmini^  a  plan 

cupidus  bellum  gerendi,  desirous  of  cupidus    belli   gerendi,   desirous  of 

carrying  on  war  carrying  on  war 

875.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  with  causi 
or  gratia  to  ^\'^x^%s  purpose. 

frumentandi  causa  progress!  sunt,   they  advanced  for  the  purpose 

of  gathering  grain 

876.  With  mei,  tui,  sui,  nostri,  and  vestri,  even  when  the  pronoun 
refers  to  the  feminine  or  the  plural,  the  gerundive  ends  in  i. 

Tarpeia  omamenta  cupivit  am  omandi  causa,  Tarpeia  desired  jewels 

to  adorn  herself 
Haedui  legates  ad  Caesarem  aui  pUrgandi  gratii  mittunt,  the  Hctdui 

send  ambassadors  to  Co'sar  to  excuse  themselves 
hoc  veatri  adhortandt  causa  non  died,  /  do  not  say  this  to  encourage  you 


324  GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE 

877.  The  dative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  with 
adjectives  denoting  fitness. 

libri  utiles  legendo,  books  useful  for  reading 

tempora    fructibus    percipiendis  accommodata,   seasons   suitable  for 

gathering  the  harvest 
aetas  bello  gerendo  matura,  a  time  of  life  ripe  for  carry i?ig  on  war 

a.  The  dative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  may  be  used  with  verbs 
and  vi^ith  nouns.  The  latter  are  usually  names  of  officials,  and  the 
dative  denotes  the  purpose  for  which  they  serve. 

hi  scribendo  aderant,  these  were  present  at  the  writing 

duumviri  agris  adsignandis,  duutnviri  for  the  assigntnent  of  lands 

diem  praestitit  operi  faciendo,  he  appointed  a  day  for  doi7tg  the  work 

Note.  The  dative  of  the  gerufid  with  a  direct  object  should  not  be  used, 
but  the  gerundive  as  above. 

878.  The  accusative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used 
with  ad  to  denote  purpose. 

diem  ad  deliberandum  siimam,  /  will  take  time  for  deliberating 
vivis  non  ad  deponendam  sed  ad  confirmandam  audaciam,  you  live  not 
to  put  off  but  to  confirin  your  dari?tg 

Note  i.    The  accusative  of  the  gerund  with  a  preposition  should  never 
be  used  with  a  direct  object ;  the  ge?'undive  is  used  instead  (see  above). 
Note  2.    Rarely  other  prepositions  appear  in  this  construction. 

879.  The  ablative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  to  ex- 
press cause,  means,  etc.,  and  after  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  ex,  or  in. 

coniiirationem  non  credendo  corr5boraverunt,  they  have  strengthened  the 

coiispij^acy  by  not  believitig 
oculi  \^xx%v^^^!!^.  flendo,  eyes  swollen  with  weepiftg 
condendo  ad  se  multitiidinem,  by  callitig  to  them  a  multitude 
reperiebat  in  quaerendo,  he  found  on  iftvestigating 
in  equis  parandis  cura,  care  in  providing  horses 
de  expugnando  oppid5,  concerning  the  storming  of  the  town 

Note.  When  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  has  no  preposition,  it  may  be 
used  with  a  direct  object,  as  in  the  third  example ;  but  after  a  preposition 
only  the  gerundive  construction  is  possible,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 


THE  SUPINE  325 

Relative  Frequency  and  Limitations  of  the  Gerund  and 
Gerundive 

880.  When  the  participial  phrase  contains  a  substantive, 
either  the  gerund  or  the  gerundive  construction  is,  as  a  rule, 
permissible,  though  the  latter  is  more  common  in  classical 
Latin.    However,  the  following  limitations  are  to  be  observed  : 

a.  The  gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  permissible  only  in  the 
genitive  and  in  the  ablative  without  a  preposition. 

b.  Only  the  gerund  is  permissible  with  a  neuter  adjective  used 
substantively. 

ars  vera  ac  falsa  dliUdicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  from  false 

Note,  This  is  to  avoid  ambiguity.  The  equivalent  gerundive  phrase, 
ars  y§r5nim  ac  falsdrum  diiudicanddrum,  would  mean  the  art  of  distinguish- 
ing true  men  from  false  men. 

c.  Only  the  gerund  is  used  when  the  verb  is  intransitive, 
eis  persuadendi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  persuading  them 

Note,  tjtor,  fruor,  fuogor,  potior,  vescor,  originally  transitive,  may  be 
used  in  either  the  gerund  or  the  gerundive  construction. 

THE  SUPINE 

881.  The  supine  is  a  verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension,  and 
has  but  two  forms,  the  accusative  in  -um  and  the  ablative  in  -a. 

882.  The  supine  has  only  two  uses : 

I.  The  supine  in  -um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion  to 
express  purpose.^ 

'  A  conspectus  of  the  commonest  constructions  employed  to  express  pur- 
pose is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

1.  Adverbial  clauses,  introduced  by  ut  or 

n«(§7>3) 

2.  Relative  clauses  (§715) 

3.  Substantive  clauses,  used  as   subject 
Purpose  may  be  J  (§721),  object  (§  720),  or  appositive 

expressed  by  I  (§  724) 

The  gerund  or  gerundive  (§§  875,  878) 
The  supine  in  -um  (§  882.  I) 


The  subjunctive 


326  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

legates  ad  Caesarem  mittunt  rogdtum  auxilium,  they  send  envoys  to 

CcEsar  to  ask  aid 
filiam  nuptum  dat,  /le  gives  his  daughter  in  marriage  (lit.  to  marry) 

a.  The  supine  in  -um  may  take  an  object,  as  in  the  first  example. 

Note.  The  supine  in  -um  with  iri,  the  passive  infinitive  of  e5,  forms 
the  future  passive  infinitive. 

sciebat  se  truciddtum  m,  he  knew  that  he  was  going  to  be  murdered 

But  the  future  passive  infinitive  is  rare ;  fore  ut  with  the  subjunctive  is 
regularly  employed  instead  (§831.  a). 

II.  The  supine  in  -u  is  used  with  a  few  adjectives,  and  with 
the  nouns  fas,  nefas,  and  opus,  as  an  ablative  of  respect  (§478). 

perfacile  factu  est,  it  is  very  easy  to  do 
difficile  dictu  est,  it  is  hard  to  say 
nefas  est  dictu,  it  is  a  sin  to  say 

a.  The  supine  in  -u  never  takes  an  object. 

b.  The  only  supines  in  -u  in  common  use  are  cognitu,  dictu, 
factu,  natu,  and  visu.  Adjectives  frequently  followed  by  the  supine 
are  facilis,  difficilis,  horribilis,  incredibilis,  and  mirabilis. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

883.  The  original  words  of  a  speaker  or  writer  quoted  with- 
out change,  in  the  form  of  an  independent  sentence,  are  said 
to  be  in  direct  discourse. 

Caesar  dicit :  Belgae  sunt  fortes,  Ccesar  says,  "  The  Belgce  are  brave  " 

884.  The  words  of  a  speaker  or  writer  quoted  in  dependent 
form  after  a  verb  of  saying,  thinking,  knowing,  or  perceiving 
are  said  to  be  in  ijidirect  discourse. 

Caesar  dicit  Belgds  esse  fortes,  Ccssar  says  that  the  Belgce  are  brave 

885.  Verbs  and  other  expressions  of  saying,  thinking,  know- 
ing,  perceiving,  and  the  like  are  commonly  followed  by  indirect 
discourse. 


PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE    327 

Verbs  of  saying:  dic(J,  nfintiC,  referO,  poUiceor,  prdmittO,  etc 

Verbs  of  thinking :  putO,  arbitror,  existimO,  etc. 

Verbs  of  knowing:  sciO.  cognOscS,  etc. 

Verbs  oi  perceiving  \  videC,  audio,  sentiO,  intellegS,  comperiC,  etc. 

a.  The  verb  of  sayings  etc,  is  sometimes  implied  by  the  context. 

886.  General  Rule.    In  indirect  discourse  the  verbs  in  the 

principal  clauses  of  declarative  sentences  are  in  the  infinitive, 
and  the  verbs  in  the  subordinate  clauses  are  in  the  subjunctive. 

PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

887.  Principal  clauses  of  direct  discourse,  on  becoming 
indirect, .  show  the  following  changes  : 

I.  Principal  clauses,  when  declarative,  change  the  indicative 
to  the  infinitive  with  subject  accusative. 

Direct  Discourse  Indirect  Discourse 

diSs  Instate  the  day  is  at  hand  intellSxit  diem  mstare,  he  perceived 

that  the  day  was  at  hand 
Helvetii  castra  moverunt,  the  Helvetii      cognovit  Helvetios  castra  movisse,  he 
moved  their  camp  learned  that  the  Ilcli'ctii  had 

moved  their  camp 
Allobrogibus  persuddebimus,  ive  shall     existimabant   se   Allobrogibus  pcr- 
persuade  the  Allobroges  sudsuros  (esse),  they  thought  that 

they  should  persuade  the  Al- 
lobroges 

a.  The  subject  accusative  of  the  infinitive  is  regularly  expressed 
in  indirect  discourse,  even  when  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  unexpressed 
as  a  pronoun  in  the  direct. 

Direct:  Srator  sum,  I  am  an  orator 

Indirect  :  dicit  si  esse  Orit&rem,  he  says  that  he  is  an  orator 

b.  The  tenses  of  the  infinitive  in  indirect  discourse  denote  time 
contemporaneous  with,  prior  to,  or  subsequent  to  that  of  the  verb  by 
which  the  indirect  discourse  is  introduced  (§  885). 


328    PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 


Direct  Discourse 

Present  indicative 
Past  descriptive  "I 
Perfect  [  indicative 

Past  perfect        J 
Future  active  indicative 
Future  passive  indicative 

Future  perfect  indicative 


Indirect  Discourse 
becomes      Present  infinitiv.e 

becomes      Perfect  infinitive 

becomes  Future  active  infinitive 
becomes  fore  (futurum  esse)  ut  with  the 
present  or  past  subjunctive  ^ 
becomes  fore  (futurum  esse)  ut  with  the 
perfect  or  past  perfect  sub- 
junctive 

Note  i  .    The  present  infinitive  posse  often  has  a  future  force. 

t5tius  Galliae  sese  potiri  posse  sperant,  i/iey  hope  that  they  shall  be  able 
to  get  possession  of  the  whole  of  Gattl 

Note  2.  The  infinitive  construction  is  regularly  continued  after  a  com- 
parative with  quam. 

addit  se  prius  occisum  iri  quam  me  violdtum  In,  he  adds  that  he  himself 
will  be  killed  sooner  than  I  shall  be  injured 

II.  Principal  clauses,  when  ijiterrogative,  change  the  indica- 
tive of  the  direct  discourse  to  the  subjunctive  if  the  question 
is  real ;  to  the  infinitive  if  the  question  is  rhetorical  .^ 


Direct  Discourse 

quid  i^?    cur  venis,  what  do  you 

want  ?  why  do  you  come  ?  [  Real 

questions.] 
num    memoriam    deponere   possum, 

can  I  lay  aside  the  memory? 

[Rhetorical  question.] 


Indirect  Discourse 

dixit    quid    vellefi    cur    vemret,   he 

said  what  did  he  want?  why 

did  he  come  ? 
dixit  num   memoriam  se   deponere 

posse,  he  said  could  he  lay  aside 

the  memory  ? 


Note  i.  Real  questions  are  generally  in  the  second  person,  rhetorical 
questions  in  the  first  or  third  ;  but  no  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  them. 

Note  2.  Questions,  either  real  or  rhetorical,  directly  following  a  verb  of 
asking,  are  treated  as  indirect  questions  and  take  the  subjunctive  (§  812). 

1  Or  (rarely)  future  passive  infinitive. 

2  Rhetorical  questions  (§  620.  b)  do  not  ask  for  information,  but  are  equiva- 
lent to  statements  ;  hence  they  are  treated  like  declarative  sentences  (§  887. 1). 


SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  329 

a.  The  deliberative  subjunctive  (§  678)  remains  subjunctive  in 
indirect  discourse. 

Direct  :  quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  do  f 

Indirect  :  dixit  quid  faceret,  he  said  what  was  he  to  do  f 

III.  Principal  clauses,  when  imperative  (that  is,  when  t\' 
\iXQss\r\g  commands, prayers f  tvishes,  d^nd  prohibitions),  have  the 
verb  in  indirect  discourse  in  the  subjunctiVe.  The  negative  is  n6. 

Direct  Discourse  Indirect  Discourse 

Present   subjunctive   after  a 

-  ^.  -  primary  tense 

Imperative  becomes  •<  ^,    *^     ,  •        •        r 

Past  subjuncuve  after  a  sec- 
ondary tense 
{Subjunctive,  though  the  tense 
may  be  changed  by  the 
law  of  tense  sequence 

Direct  Discourse  Indirect  Discourse 

reminiscere    veteris    incommodi,    re-      dixit    remimsceretur   veteris    incom- 
member  the  anciettt  disaster  modi,  he  told  him  to  retnember 

the  ancient  disaster 
amimus  patriam,   /et  us  love  our      dixit  amarent  patriam,  he  told  thetn 

country  to  love  their  country 

istS  bonS  utare,  use  that  blessing  dicit  isto  bono  utatur,  he  says  that 

he  should  use  that  blessing 
n61i  dubitare,  don^t  hesitate  dicit  rH  dubitet,  he  tells  him  not  to 

hesitate 

a.  A  prohibition  with  nOli  and  the  infinitive  (§676.  a)  becomes 
the  subjunctive  with  nC,  as  shown  in  the  last  example. 

SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

888.  Subordinate  clauses,  on  becoming  indirect,  take  the 
subjunctive. 

889.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse 
follow  the  rule  for  sequence  of  tenses  (§  695),  and  depend  on 
the  verb  by  which  the  indirect  discourse  is  introduced. 


330  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 


Direct  Discourse 
Present"! 


Future  J 


indicative 


Perfect 
Future  perfect . 


indicative 


becomes 


becomes  - 


Past  descriptive  indicative  becomes- 


Past  perfect  indicative 


becomes 


Indirect  Discourse 

Present  subjunctive  after  a  pri- 
mary tense 

Past  subjunctive  after  a  second- 
ary tense 

Perfect  subjunctive  after  a  pri- 
mary tense 

Past  perfect  subjunctive  after  a 
secondary  tense 

Perfect  subjunctive  after  a  pri- 
mary tense 

Past  subjunctive  after  a  second- 
ary tense 

Perfect  subjunctive  after  a  pri- 
mary tense 

Past  perfect  subjunctive  after  a 
secondary  tense 


890.  A  subjunctive  in  a  subordinate  clause  of  the  direct  discourse 
remains  subjunctive  when  the  clause  becomes  indirect ;  but  the  tense 
may  be  changed  to  conform  to  the  law  of  tense  sequence. 

891.  A  past  or  past  perfect  subjunctive  in  the  subordinate  clause 
of  a  condition  contrary  to  fact  always  remains  unchanged  in  indirect 
discourse  (see  §  900). 

892.  The  following  examples  include  both  principal  and 
subordinate  clauses : 


Direct  Discourse 


Indirect  Discourse 


sunt   non   niilli   quorum   auct5ritas      dicit  esse  non  nullos  quorum  aucto- 

_i-    • _._i-_^    j7. _:i=_    -.in-; .—     I *      1,^     ,« 


pliirimum  vdleat,  there  are  some 
whose  influe7ice  is  very  strong 

id  quod  in  Nerviis  feci  faciam,  / 
will  do  that  which  I  did  in  the 
case  of  the  Nervii 


ritas  plurimum  valeat,  he  says 
that  there  are  some  whose  in- 
fluence is  very  strong 
respondit  se  id  quod  in  Nerviis 
fecisset  facturum  esse,  he  replied 
that  he  would  do  that  which  he 
had  done  in  the  case  of  the 
Nervii 


SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  331 

Direct  Discoursk  Indirect  Discourse 

ad  Caesarem  Ib5  ut  pacem  petatn,  I      dixit    se   ad    Caesarem    iturum   ut 
u'ill  ^o  to   Citsar  that  I  may  pacem  peteret,  he  said  that  he 

beg  for  peace  would  go  to  Ccesar  that  he  might 

beg  for  peace 
obeamcausamquam  diu />ofi/Ftacui,      dicit  ob  earn  causam  se  quam  di& 
for  this  reason  I  have  kept  si-  potuerit   tacuisse,   he  says   that 

lence  as  long  as  I  could  for  this  reason  he  has  kept  si- 

lence as  long  as  he  could 

893.  The  subjunctive  depending  on  a  perfect  infinitive  is  usually 
in  the  past  or  past  perfect  in  indirect  discourse,  even  if  the  verb  of 
saying  etc.  is  in  a  primar)'  tense  (cf.  §  703). 

satis  mihi  multa  verba  fecisse  videor  qua  re  esset  hoc  bellum  necessa- 
riom,  I  think  I  have  said  enough  to  show  why  this  war  is  necessary 

894.  The  present  or  perfect  subjunctive  is  often  used  after 
a  secondary  tense  to  make  the  narrative  more  vivid  (cf.  §  707). 

dicebant  totidem  Nervios  polliceri,  qui  longissime  absinty  they  said 
that  the  Nervii,  who  live  farthest  off,  promised  as  many 

895.  Subordinate  clauses  inserted  by  the  narrator  himself,  and  not 
part  of  the  indirect  discourse,  are  in  the  indicative. 

referunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis,  they  say  that  there  is  a 
forest,  which  is  called  Bacenis 

896.  Clauses  introduced  by  a  relative  which  is  equivalent  to 
a  demonstrative  with  a  conjunction  (§  564)  are  subordinate  only 
in  form,  and  hence  take  the  accusative  and  infinitive  in  indirect 
discourse  like  declarative  principal  clauses  (§  887.  I). 

quibus  proeliis  fractos  Haeduos  coactos  esse  Sequanis  obsides  dare,  and 
that  weakened  by  these  battles  the  Hcedui  had  been  compelled  to 
give  hostages  to  the  Sequani 

897.  If  the  verb  of  a  relative  clause  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
principal  clause,  it  may  be  omitted  and  its  subject  attracted  into 
the  accusative. 

tS  suspicor  iisdem  rSbus  quibus  me  ipsum  (instead  of  ego  ipse)  commo- 
v5ri,  /  suspect  that  you  are  mo7>ed  by  the  same  things  as  I 


332 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 


898.  The  condition  in  a  conditional  sentence  is  a  subordinate 
clause,  and  the  conclusion  is  a  principal  clause.  Hence  in 
indirect  discourse  — 

I.  The  condition  is  always  in  the  subjunctive. 
II.  The  conclusion,  if  declarative,  is  always  in  some  form  of 
the  infinitive. 

899.  Conclusions  that  are  interrogative  or  imperative  in  form  are 
treated  like  other  principal  clauses  of  that  sort.    See  §  887.  II,  III. 

900.  Conditional  sentences  show  the  following  changes  in 
mood  and  tense  on  passing  from  direct  to  indirect  discourse  : 


Form  of 
Condition 

Condition  (Sub- 
ordinate Clause) 

Conclusion 
(Principal  Clause) 

I.    Non-committal 
(present  and  past) 

Indicative  becomes 
subjunctive 

Indicative  becomes  infinitive 
Imperative  becomes  subjunctive 
Subjunctive  remains  subjunctive 

II.   More  and  less 
definite  (future) 

Indicative  becomes 

subjunctive 
Subjunctive  remains 

subjunctive 

Future  active  indicative  or  pres- 
ent active  subjunctive  becomes 
future  active  infinitive 

Future  passive  indicative  or 
present  passive  subjunctive 
becomes  fore  (futurum  esse) 
ut  with  the  present  or  past 
subjunctive 

Future  perfect  indicative  or  per- 
fect subjunctive  becomes  fore 
(futurum  esse)  ut  with  the 
perfect  or  past  perfect  sub- 
junctive 

III.   Contrary     to 

fact  (present   and 

past) 

Past  or  past  perfect 
subjunctive     re- 
mains unchanged 

Past  or  past  perfect  active  sub- 
junctive becomes  the  future 
participle  with  fuisse 

Past  or  past  perfect  passive  sub- 
junctive becomes  futurum 
fuisse  ut  with  the  past  sub- 
junctive 

CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES 


333 


901.  The  changes  required  in  conditional  sentences  when 
they  pass  from  direct  to  indirect  discourse  are  illustrated  by  the 
following  examples : 


Direct  Disc«)tKSK 


Indirect  Discoursi 


I.   Non-committal  (present  and  past) 


1.  si  pugnas,  vincis,  if  you  Jight^ 

YOU  conquer 

2.  SI  pugnas,  vince,  if  you  fight ^ 

conquer 

3.  si  pugnas,  vincas,  if  you  fight, 

may  you  conquer 


(  died  si  pugnes,  te  vincere 
Idiz!  81  pugnariSf  tS  vincere 

/  dico  si  pugnes,  vincas 
'  ^'  1  dixi  si  pugnares,  vinceres 


II.   More  and  less  definite  (future) 


1.  si    pugnabis,     vinces,     if  you 

(shaii)  fight,  you  will  con- 
quer.   [More  definite.] 

2.  si  pugnes,  vincas,  if  you  should 

fight,    you    would   conquer. 
[Less  definite.] 

3.  si    pugnabis,    vinceris,    if  you 

(shall)  fight,  you  will  be  con- 
quered.   [More  definite.] 

4.  si  pugnes,  vincaris,  if  you  should 

fight,    you    would    be    con- 
quered.  [Less  definite.] 


1,2. 


died  si  pugnes,  te  victUrum 
esse.  [More  and  less  defi- 
nite.] 

dixi  si  pugnares,  te  victUrum 
esse.  [More  and  less  defi- 
nite.] 

'  dic6  si  pugnes,  fore  ut  vincaris. 
[More  and  less  definite.] 
3»  4-  s  dijd  si  pugnares,  fore  ut  vin- 
cereris.      [More    and    less 
definite.] 


III.  Contrary  to  fact  (present  and  past) 


1 .  si  pugnares,  vinceres,  i/'you  were 

fighting,  you  would  be  con- 
quering.   [Present.] 

2.  si  pugnavisses,  vicisses,  if  you 

had  fought,  you  would  Jiave 
conquered.    [Past.] 

3.  si  pugnares,  vinccrSris,  if  you 

were  fighting,  you  would  be 
conquered.    [  Present. ] 

4.  s!  pugnavissSs,  victus  ess^s,  // 

you  had  fought,  you  would 
have  been  conquered.   [Past.] 


1.  dico.  or  dixi,  si  pugnares,  te  vic- 

tUrum fuisse.    [  Present.  ] 

2.  died,  or  dixi,  si  pugnavissis,  te  vic- 

tUrum fuisse.   [  I'ast.  ] 

3.  dic5,  or  dixi,  si  pugnaris,  futUrum 

fuisse  ut  vincereris.    [  Present.] 

4.  dic5,  or  dixi,  si  pugnavisses,  futU- 

rum fuisse  ut  vinceriris.   [  Past.  ] 


334  SUBJUNCTIVE  BY  ATTRACTION 

902.  Observe  that  more  and  less  definite  future  conditions  assume 
the  same  form  in  indirect  discourse  and  cannot  be  distinguished. 

903.  Observe  that  in  indirect  discourse  present  and  past  condi- 
tions contrary  to  fact  have  the  same  form  in  the  conclusion,  but  that 
they  retain  the  regular  distinction  of  tense  in  the  condition. 

904.  Observe  that  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  follow  the  rules 
of  tense  sequence  except  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact. 

IMPLIED  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

905.  The  presence  of  the  subjunctive  in  a  subordinate  clause 
may  show  that  it  is  an  indirect  quotation,  even  though  there  is 
no  verb  of  saying  or  the  like  in  the  principal  clause. 

Paetus  omnis  libros  quos  frater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit,  Pectus 
presented  to  me  all  the  books  which  (he  said)  his  brother  had  left 

Caesar  Haeduos  frumentum  quod  cssent  poUiciti  flagitare,  Ccssar  kept 
asking  the  Hcedui  for  the  grain  which  (he  asserted)  they  had 
promised 

906.  The  principle  of  implied  indirect  discourse  explains  the  use 
of  the  subjunctive  in  causal  clauses  when  the  reason  given  is  that  of 
another  than  the  speaker  or  writer  (§  768,  b). 

queritur  quod  desertus  sit,  he  complains  because  (as  he  says)  he  has 
been  deserted 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  BY  ATTRACTION 

907.  A  subordinate  clause  depending  on  a  subjunctive  or  an 
infinitive  clause,  and  essential  to  its  thonght,  is  attracted  into 
tlie  subjunctive. 

hortatus  sum  ut  ea  quae  sciret  sine  timore  indicaret,  /  urged  him  to 

disclose  without  fear  the  things  which  he  knew 
quis  tam  dissoluto  animo  est,  qui  haec  cum  videat^  tacere  possit,  who 

is  of  so  reckless  a  spirit  that,  when  he  sees  these  things,  he  can 
keep  silent  ? 


ORDER  OF  WORDS  335 

in58  est  Athenis  Uudari  in  cdnti5ne  eos  qui  sint  in  proeliis  inteffecti,  it 
is  the  custom  at  Athens  for  those  to  be  eulogized  in  the  assembly 
who  have  been  killed  in  battle 

908.  The  dependent  clause  must  be  a  necessary  and  logical  part 
of  the  subjunctive  or  infinitive  clause,  or  no  attraction  takes  place. 

milites  misit  ut  eSs  qui  fugerant  persequerentur,  he  sent  soldiers  to 

pursue  those  who  had  fled 
ne  hostes,  quod  tantum  multitiidiDe  poterant,  suds  circumvenire  possent, 

le'st  the  enemy ^  because  they  were  so  strong  in  numbers,  should  be 

able  to  surround  his  men 

909.  The  subjunctive  in  implied  indirect  discourse  and  the  sub- 
junctive by  attraction  are  so  closely  related  that  it  is  often  difficult  to 
distinguish  between  them. 

THE  ORDER  OF  WORDS 
GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

910.  The  words  of  an  English  sentence  stand  in  a  more  or 
less  fixed  order,  which  shows  their  grammatical  relation  to  each 
other.  In  Latin  this  relation  is  shown  by  inflection,  and  the 
order  of  the  words  depends  mainly  upon  the  connection  of 
thought,  the  emphasis,  and  the  principles  of  euphony. 

911.  The  two  most  important  places  in  the  Latin  sentence 
are  the  beginning  and  the  end,  and  the  words  standing  there 
have  a  corresponding  value. 

Note.  The  clear  indication  of  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  sentence 
by  the  order  of  words  was  the  more  important  to  the  Romans  because  they 
had  no  marks  of  punctuation. 

912.  The  normal  ^  order  of  the  simple,  independent,  discon- 
nected sentence  is  as  follows : 

1.  Subject. 

2.  Modifiers  of  the  subject. 

*  By  normal  is  meant  the  order  in  which  no  attempt  is  made  to  give  any  part 
of  the  sentence  unusual  emphasis  or  to  secure  rhythmic  or  euphonic  effects. 


336  ORDER  OF  WORDS 

3.  Object.  If  there  are  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object, 
the  indirect  sometimes  precedes  the  direct  and  sometimes 
follows  it. 

4.  Adverb. 

5.  Verb. 

The  position  of  other  elements,  such  as  ablatives,  preposi- 
tional phrases,  etc.,  cannot  be  exactly  formulated,  but  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  emphasis  and  euphony. 

913.  In  connected  narrative  the  first  sentence  normally 
begins  with  the  subject,  and  each  succeeding  sentence  with 
whatever  word  links  the  thought  of  the  sentence  with  that  of 
the  sentence  preceding. 

palus  erat  n5n  magna  inter  nostrum  atque  hostium  exercitum.  Hanc  si 
nostri  transirent  hostes  exspectabant,  ^/lere  was  a  swam/f  of  no 
great  size  between  our  army  and  that  of  the  e?iemy.  The  enemy 
were  waiting  to  see  whether  our  meti  would  cross  this 

Note  that  the  first  sentence  is  introduced  by  palus,  the  subject,  but 
the  second  by  hanc,  the  linking  word.  Observe  also  the  next  two 
examples : 

subitum  bellum  in  Gallia  coortum  est.  Eius  belli  haec  fuit  causa,  a 
sudden  war  arose  in  Gaul.  Of  that  war  the  cause  was  as 
follows 

ipse  in  lUyricum  proficiscitur.  Ed  cum  venisset,  milites  certum  in  locum 
convenire  iubet.  Qua.  re  niintiata  Piriistae  legates  ad  eum  mittunt. 
Percepta  oratione  eorum  Caesar  obsides  imperat,  he  hiinself  set  out 
for  Illyricum.  Upon  his  arrival  there.,  he  ordered  soldiers  to 
assemble  in  a  particular  place.  When  this  was  reported.^  the 
Pirustce  sent  oivoys  to  him.  Having  heard  their  plea.,  CcEsar 
demanded  hostages 

a.  The  relative  pronoun  is  thus  frequently  used  as  a  connecting 
link  (§  564). 

quod  ubi  Caesar  animadvertit,  legati  ita  responderunt,  wheti  Ccesar 
noticed  this,  the  legates  replied  as  follows 


I 


ORDER  OF  WORDS  337 

SPECIAL  RULES 
Attributive  Adjectives  and  Genitives 

914.  Attributive  adjectives  in  general  both  precede  and 
follow  their  nouns. 

a.  Numeral  adjectives,  adjectives  of  quantity  and  size,  as  omnis, 
tOtus,  magnus,  etc.,  and  the  adjectives  alius,  alter,  Qllus,  nullus, 
normally  precede. 

decima  legiS,  thg  tenth  legion 

totum  oppidum,  the  entire  town 

ingens  multitud6,  a  huge  number 

aliud  iter,  another  way 

h.  The  position  of  many  adjectives  has  been  fixed  by  custom, 
populus  Romanus,  the  Roman  people 
res  publico,  the  commonwealth 
di  immortales,  the  immortal  gods 
res  frumentaria,  the  grain  supply 
Sacra  Via,  the  Sacred  IVay  (a  street  in  Rome) 

c.  Proper  adjectives  usually  follow  their  nouns. 

S5crates  Atheniensis,  Socrates  the  Athenian 

915.  Genitives  in  general  both  precede  and  follow  their  nouns. 

a.  Causa  and  gratii  are  always  preceded  by  their  genitive. 

honoris  causa,  for  the  sake  of  honor 
exempli  gratia,  yi^r  example 

b.  The  genitives  of  interrogative  and  relative  pronouns  always  pre- 
cede their  nouns,  and  the  genitives  of  other  pronouns  generally  do  so. 

cuius  magnae  c5piae,  whose  great  forces 
eorum  obsidSs,  their  hostages 

c.  In  stereotyped  phrases  consisting  of  a  noun  modified  by  a 
genitive,  the  genitive  generally  follows. 

pater  familias.  father  of  a  family 
tribunus  ptebis,  tribune  of  the  people 
mflia  passuum,  thousands  of  paces 
But  unatus  cfinsultum,  a  decree  of  the  senate 


338  ORDER  OF  WORDS 

916.  When  a  noun  is  modified  by  both  an  adjective  and 
a  genitive,  the  usual  order  is  adjective^  nouuy  genitive ;  less 
frequently  adjective,  genitive,  noun.  The  order  genitive,  noun, 
adjective  is  rare. 

inferior  pars  insulae,  the  lower  part  of  the  island 
magna  hominum  multitudo,  a  great  number  of  7nen 

917.  Prepositions  usually  precede  an  adjective  with  its  noun, 
but  monosyllabic  prepositions  (especially  cum,  de,  ex,  and  in) 
often  stand  between  the  adjective  and  its  noun. 

ad  latus  apertum,  oti  the  exposed  side 

ex  proximis  navibus,  fro7n  the  nearest  ships 

summa  cum  laude,  with  the  highest  praise 

a.  Relative  and  interrogative  adjectives  usually  precede  the 
preposition. 

qua  de  causa,  for  this  reason 
quam  ob  rem,  wherefore 
quern  ad  modum,  how 

Pronouns 

918.  Hie,  iste,  ille,  is,  and  idem,  used  as  pronominal  adjectives, 

and   indefinite  pronominal   adjectives    normally  precede  their 

nouns. 

haec  spes,  this  hope 

ista  vita,  that  life 

ille  exercitus,  that  arjny 

aliqua  causa,  some  case 

a.  Ille  in  the  sense  of  that  (or  the)  famous ^  that  (or  the)  well- 
known,  normally  follows  its  noun  (see  §  538). 

919.  Possessive  pronominal  adjectives  normally  follow  their 

nouns. 

domus  mea,  7ny  house 

pater  noster,  our  father 

copiae  suae,  his  forces 


ORDER  OF  WORDS  339 

920.  Quisque  regularly  follows  sS  or  suus,  superlatives,  and 

ordinals. 

ad  suam  quisque  domam,  racA  to  his  own  house 

optimus  quisque  civis,  a//  the  best  citizens 

quartd  quoque  aim5,  ei.>ery  fourth  year 

921.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person  precedes  the  second, 
and  the  second  the  third. 

ego  et  tu,  you  and  I 
tu  et  ille,  you  and  he 

922.  Relatives  and  interrogatives  normally  stand  first  in  their 
clauses. 

Note.    For  the  antecedent  standing  in  the  relative  clause  see  §  559. 

Adverbs 

923.  Adverbs  normally  precede  the  words  they  modify ;  but 
quidem,  quoque,  dfinique,  and  d6mum  regularly,  and  fert  and  saepe 
usually,  follow. 

Conjunctions 

924.  Conjunctions  normally  introduce  their  clauses ;  butautem, 
enim,  v6r6,  and  generally  igitur  ^  stand  second^  sometimes  third. 

Note.    Such  words  are  said  to  be  postpositive. 

Prepositions 

925.  Prepositions  normally  precede  their  cases,  but  tenus, 
versus,  and  enclitic  cum  (§  277.  d)  follow. 

a.  A  preposition  may  follow  its  case.    This  is  rare  in  prose,  but 
occurs  in  poetry,  especially  with  prepositions  of  two  syllables. 
vSstibulum  ante  (Vergil),  before  the  entrance 

Note.  Observe  the  idiomatic  order  in  per  18  deds  6r6,  /  beseech  you  by 
the  gods. 

1 1{itur  sometimes  stands /rr/. 


340  ORDER  OF  WORDS 

Verbs 

926.  The  finite  verb  normally  tends  to  stand  last. 
Ariovistus  legates  ad  eum  mittit,  Ariovistus  sends  envoys  to  him 

a.  The  verb  often  stands  first  in  explanatory  clauses  when  the 
connecting  word  is  autem  or  enim. 

loquor  autem  de  communibus  amicitiis,  /  am  speaking  now,  howeve?; 

about  0}-di7iary  friendships 
licet  enim  mihi  apud  te  gloriari,  for  it  is  allowed  me  to  boast  in  your 

presence 

927.  Sum  has  no  fixed  position ;  but  when  it  means  exist,  it 
regularly  stands  first  or,  at  any  rate,  before  its  subject. 

sunt  fortes  viri,  there  are  brave  men 

928.  Inquam,  /  say,  stands  after  one  or  more  words  of  a 
direct  quotation  and  is  usually  followed  by  its  subject. 

"  refer,"  inquis,  "  ad  senatum,"  "  lay  the  matter  befo?-e  the  senate,'''' 

you  say 
"  est  vero,"  inquit  Cicero,  "  n5tum  quidem  signmn,"  "  it  is  truly,^'' 

said  Cicero,  ''  a  i'e?y  well-known  sear'' 

Negatives 

929.  The  negative  generally  precedes  the  verb  (§  923)  ;  if  it 
is  emphatic,  it  begins  the  sentence  ;  if  it  negatives  only  one 
word,  it  precedes  that  word. 

The  Vocative 

930.  The  vocative  normally  stands  after  one  or  more  words 
in  the  sentence. 

parce  metu,  Cytherea,  cease  your  fear,  Cytherea 

a.  When  emphatic,  the  vocative  stands  first. 
M.  Tulli,  quid  agis,  Marcus  Tullius,  what  are  you  doing? 


ORDER  OF  WORDS  34 1 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES 

931.  Subordinate  clauses  normally  begin  with  the  connective 
and  end  with  the  verb.  The  intervening  words  are  arranged  in 
general  as  in  principal  clauses. 

The  distinct  indication  of  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  subordinate 
clause  was  the  more  necessary  because  the  Romans  had  no  punctua- 
tion marks. 

932.  Subordinate  clauses  generally  precede  the  principal 
clause ;  but  the  principal  clause  normally  precedes  clauses  of 
purpose  or  result,  substantive  clauses  in  indirect  discourse,  and 
indirect  questions. 

cum  esset  Caesar  in  citeriore  GalliOy  crebri  ad  eum  rumSres  adferebantur, 

when  Ccesar  was  in  hither  Gaui,  frequent  reports  were  brought 

to  him 
mittunt  legatSs  qui  pacem  petant,  they  send  envoys  to  beg  for  peace 
verebantur  ne  ad  eos  exercitus  noster  addUceretur^  they  feared  that  our 

army  would  be  led  against  them 
certior  fiebat  orrmis  Belgas  obsides  inter  si  dare,  he  was  informed  that 

all  the  Belgce  7vere  giving  hostages  to  each  other 
rogat  me  quid  sentiam,  he  asks  me  what  I  think 

THE  RHETORICAL  ORDER 

933.  Deviations  from  the  normal  order  (§  912)  arc  very 
frequent  and  are  known  as  the  rhetorical  order.  These  devia- 
tions arise  from  the  desire  to  indicate  emphasis  or  to  secure 
pleasing  euphonic  effects  (see  also  §  938). 

934.  Emphasis  is  secured  by  putting  words  in  unusual 
positions,  as  follows : 

a.  By  inverting  the  normal  order  of  the  subject  and  verb.  This 
transposition  makes  them  both  emphatic. 

mdvit  ml  oratio  tua,  your  speech  mooted  me 

fuimu8  Tr6e8,  fuit  ilium,  we  have  ceased  to  be  Trojans^  Ilium  is  no 
more  (of.  §  659) 


342  ORDER  OF  WORDS 

b.  By  placing  first  a  word  that  would  not  normally  stand  there. 
luce  sunt  clariora  tua  consilia,  your pla7is  are  clearer  than  daylight 

c.  By  taking  an  emphatic  word  or  phrase  out  of  a  subordinate 
clause  and  placing  it  before  the  connective. 

servi  mel  si  me  isto  pacto  metuerent,  etc.,  if  even  my  si.aye.s  feared 
me  in  that  fashion^  etc. 

d.  By  inverting  the  normal  order  of  a  noun  and  its  modifier.  This 
transposition  makes  the  modifier  emphatic. 

oratores  hi  sunt  clarissimi,  these  orators  are  the  most  famous 
non  est  rma  culpa,  it  is  7iot  my  fault 

e.  By  separating  words  that  would  normally  stand  together. 
Thus  especially  an  emphatic  adjective  is  separated  from  its  noun. 

haec  res  UnTus  est  propria  Caesaris,  this  exploit  belongs  to  Caesar  alone 
magna  dis  immortalibus  habenda  est  gratia,  great  gratitude  is  due  to 

the  imtnortal  gods 
Gallia  est  omnis  divisa  in  partes  tres,  Gaul^  viewed  as  a  whole,  is 

divided  into  three  parts 

f.  By  reversing  the  order  of  words  in  the  second  of  two  contrasted 
expressions.    This  is  called  chias^mus  and  is  very  common. 

fragile  corpus,  animus  sempiternus,  a  frail  body^  an  immortal  soul 
quam  diii  vixit,  vixit  in  luctii,  as  long  as  he  livedo  he  lived  in  sorrow 

Note.  Chiasmus  is  named  from  the  Greek  letter  chi  (X),  in  which 
the  lines  are  crossed. 

CLAUSE  AND  SENTENCE  BUILDING 

935.  The  connection  of  clause  with  clause  and  sentence 
with  sentence  is  much  closer  in  Latin  than  in  English.  There 
is  evident  a  constant  effort  to  combine  into  a  harmonious  whole 
the  different  parts  of  discourse  and  to  make  clear  their  logical 
relationship. 

936.  Structure  of  the  Period.  English  narrative  consists 
largely  of  short  sentences,  each  distinct  from  the  rest  and 
saying  one  thing  by  itself.    Latin  writers,   on  the  contrary, 


EUPHONY  AND  RHYTHM  343 

viewed  a  number  of  related  actions  or  thoughts  as  a  whole, 
and  this  resulted  in  the  formation  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Period. 

To  form  a  period,  the  chief  action  or  thought  among  a  number  of 
related  ones  is  selected  and  made  the  principal  clause,  and  all  the 
other  clauses  are  incorporated  in  it  as  subordinate  elements.  Gener- 
ally the  period  begins  with  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  then 
follow  the  subordinate  clauses,  and  the  period  closes  with  the  predi- 
cate of  the  principal  clause,  the  main  verb  usually  standing  last  In 
this  way  the  thought  is  kept  in  suspense  from  clause  to  clause  and 
is  not  complete  until  the  final  word.  Roman  writers  were  very  fond 
of  the  periodic  style,  and  it  is  imitated  sometimes  in  English,  espe- 
cially in  poetry,  as  in  the  following : 

High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat  —  "  Paradise  Lost,"  ii,  1-5 

A  Latin  period  is  usually  best  translated  into  English  by  breaking 
it  up  into  two  or  more  short  sentences. 
Examples  of  the  Latin  period : 

Caesar  primum  su6  deinde  omnium  ex  conspectu  remStis  equis,  ut 

aequatd  omnium   perlculd  spem    fugae  tolleret,   cohortatus    suds 

proelium  commisit 
Caesar,  una  aestate  duobus  maximis  bellis  confectis,  maturius  pauld 

quam  tempus  anni  postulabat,  in  hiberna  in  Sequands  exercitum 

deduzit 

937.  Euphony  and  Rhythm.  Good  writers  of  I^tin  had 
regard  for  sound  as  well  as  for  sense,  and  this  had  an  impor- 
tant effect  on  the  order  of  words.  They  avoided  a  succession 
of  monosyllabic  or  of  polysyllabic  words,  as  also  the  heaping 
up  of  a  number  of  verbs  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  The 
orators  in  particular  took  pains  to  have  a  sentence  close  with 
a  pleasing  combination  of  short  and  long  syllables.     These 


344  RHETORICAL  EFFECTS 

closing  syllables  were  known  as  the  cadence.    Certain  cadences 
were  sought  after  and  others  avoided.    For  example : 

r  w  w  w  I  _  w,  reperietiir  (tribrach  and  trochee) 

„        .         J  I  _  w  I  _  w,  quaereretiir  (two  trochees) 

Favorite  cadences  <^  '         _   y     ,  ,       •         r   ^    ^  ^ 

_  w  _,  muniunt  (cretic;  cf.  §  967) 

t w  I ,  criminis  causa  (cretic  and  spondee) 

Avoided  cadence,  _  w  w  | ,  omne  tenebant  (dactyl  and  spondee) 

Preferably  a  word  of  two  or  more  syllables  of  sonorous  sound  was 
placed  last. 

RHETORICAL  EFFECTS 

938.  As  has  been  already  pointed  out  (§933),  emphasis  is 
produced  by  deviations  from  the  normal  order  of  words.  In 
addition  rhetoricians  employed  many  devices  to  secure  unusual 
effects.    Among  those  most  employed  are  the  following : 

939.  Anaph^ora:  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of 
successive  clauses. 

nihil  agis,  nihil  moliris,  nihil  cogitas,  you  do  nothings  you  plan  nothings 
you  think  nothing 

Note.  The  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  successive  clauses  is 
called  epiph'ora. 

940.  Antith^esis :  opposition  or  contrast.  This  is  often  secured  by 
placing  words  opposed  in  meaning  next  to  each  other. 

nee  audet  appellare  virum  virgo,  nor  does  the  maid  dare  to  address 

the  hero 
alius  aliam  in  partem  fugit,  one  fled  in  one  direction,  another  in 

another 

Note.  Antithetical  phrases  or  pairs  of  words  are  usually  contrasted  by 
chiasmus  (see  §  934./^). 

941.  Aposiope'sis :  an  abrupt  pause  in  the  midst  of  a  sentence, 
leaving  the  imagination  to  supply  the  remainder. 

quos  ego sed  m5t6s  praestat  componere  fluctus,  whom  I '- 

but  it  is  better  to  calm  the  angry  billows 


RHETORICAL  EFFECTS  345 

942.  Asyn'd£/on :  omission  of  conjunctions. 

iura,  leges,  agrds,  libertatem  ndbis  reliquirunt,  they  have  left  us  our 
rights,  our  laws,  our  fields,  our  liberty 

Note.    The  opposite  of  asyndeton,  when  more  conjunctions  are  ex- 
pressed than  is  necessary,  is  called  polysyndeton. 

943.  EpizeuxHs :  the  emphatic  repetition  of  a  word. 

fuity  fuit  quondam  in  hac  rC  public&  virtiis,  there  was,  there  was 
fonnerly  virtue  in  this  republic 

944.  Hendi^adys :  the  use  of  two  nouns  with  a  conjunction  instead 
of  a  single  modified  noun,  or  of  two  verbs  for  an  adverb  and  verb. 

ardor  et  impetus,  heat  and  attack,  for  heated  attack 

te  semper  amavi  et  ditexi,  I  have  always  loved  you  dearly 

945.  HysUeron prot'eron  (the  last  first):  a  reversing  of  the  natural 
order  of  ideas. 

moriamur  et  in  media  arma  ruamus,  let  us  die  and  rush  into  the 
midst  of  the  conflict 

946.  Interlocked  order :  the  placing  of  the  attribute  of  one  pair  of 
words  between  the  parts  of  another. 

tantS  su6/to«  terrdre  ruinae,  with  such  fear  of  sudden  disaster 
Note.    This  is  a  favorite  Vergilian  device. 

947.  JJ totes :  the  affirming  of  a  thing  by  denying  its  contrary,  or 
by  understating  it. 

n6n  sordidus  auctor.  no  mean  authority^  meaning  a  distinguished 
authority 

948.  OnomatopQ:'ia :  the  use  of  words  whose  sound  suggests  the 
sense. 

exoritur  clamorque  vimm  clangorque  tubarum,  the  shouts  of  men  and 
the  blare  of  trumpets  rise 

949.  Oxymo'ron :  the  placing  together  of  two  apparently  contra- 
dictory ideas. 

irida  nutrix,  the  parched  nurse 
splendide  mendix,  gloriously  false 


346  GRAMMATICAL  TERMS 

GRAMMATICAL  TERMS 

950.  a.  Anacolu^thon :  a  change  of  construction  in  the  same  sen- 
tence, leaving  the  first  part  without  grammatical  construction. 

h.  Ellip^sis :  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  necessary  to  the 
sense. 

c.  EnaVlage :  substitution  of  one  form  or  word  for  another. 

d.  HypaVlage :  interchange  of  constructions. 

e.  pyonasm :  the  use  of  needless  words. 

/.  Syndesis :  agreement  of  words  according  to  the  sense  and  not 
the  grammatical  form. 

g.  Tme'sis  (cutting) :  the  separation  of  the  two  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word  by  other  words. 

h.  Zeiig^ma :  the  connection  of  a  word  with  two  others,  to  only 
one  of  which  it  strictly  applies. 

pacem  an  bellum  gerens,  (making)  peace  or  waging  war  (lit.  waging 
peace  or  war) 


PART  IV.    VERSIFICATION 

QUANTITY 

951.  Quantity  is  the  time  required  for  the  utterance  of  a 
vowel,  a  consonant,  or  a  syllable.  Some  sounds  require  much 
more  time  than  others.  We  speak  therefore  of  long  quantity 
and  short  quantity.  The  marks  —  and  ^  are  used  to  indicate 
long  and  short  quantity  respectively.  A  long  quantity  is  gen- 
erally reckoned  as  equal  in  length  to  two  short  ones. 

952.  English  poetry  is  based  on  accent,  and  the  rhythm  of 
English  poetry  depends  on  a  regular  succession  of  accented 
and  unaccented  syllables. 

This  is  the  |  forest  pri|meval.   The  |  murmuring  |  pines  and  the  |  hemlocks 

Latin  poetry,  too,  has  a  metrical  accent  (§978),  but  is  based 
primarily  on  quantity,  and  the  rhythm  of  Latin  poetry  depends, 
like  music,  on  a  regular  succession  of  equal  intervals  of  time, 
accipijens  sCnI|tum  sax|i  de  |  verticg  |  pastdr  (cf.  §  967) 

As  the  line  of  English  depends  for  its  rhythm  upon  the  regular 
succession  of  the  six  accented  syllables,  so  the  Latin  is  made  rhyth- 
mical by  the  succession  of  the  six  equal  intervals  or  measures  of 
time,  each  consisting  of  two  long  syllables  or  their  equivalent 

QUANTITY  1  OF  VOWELS 

953.  Long  Vowels.    A  vowel  is  regularly  long  — 

a.   Before  ns,  nf,  nx,  and  net :  as,  reggns.  inferO,  sinxi,  sanctum. 
h.   When   formed   by   contraction:   as,  nil   (for   nihil),   c6g6   (for 
co-agO),  pr6nd5  (for  prehendO). 

*  A  few  of  the  leading  rules  for  quantity  are  given  in  §§  25-34- 
347 


348  QUANTITY 

954.  Diphthongs.  A  diphthong  is  regularly  long  and  is  left 
unmarked. 

Note.  When  qu-,  su-,  or  gu-  combines  with  a  following  vowel  to  form 
a  single  syllable,  u  has  the  sound  of  w  and  does  not  form  a  diphthong  with 
the  following  vowel :  as,  aquSm,  suavis,  sanguis, 

955.  Short  Vowels.    A  vowel  is  regularly  short  — 

a.   Before  -nt  or  -nd :  as,  amSnt,  monSndus, 
h.   Before  another  vowel  or  h :  as,  via,  trfiho. 
To  this  rule  there  are  the  following  exceptions : 

1 .  E  in  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  of  the  fifth  declension  is  long 
between  two  vowels :  as,  diei ;  otherwise  usually  short :  as,  fidei,  r6i. 

2.  I  in  the  genitive  singular  ending  -ius  is  regularly  long :  as,  illius, 
totius. 

But  in  poetry  it  is  regularly  short  in  alterius,  usually  in  utrius,  and  some- 
times in  other  words. 

3.  I  is  long  in  the  forms  of  fio,  ex(?ept  in  fit  and  when  followed  by  er. 
Thus,  fiebam,  fiam,  but  fieri,  fierem. 

4.  In  a  few  other  Latin  words  and  in  many  Greek  words  a  vowel 
before  another  vowel  is  long :  as,  dius,  Aeneas,  aer,  heroas. 


QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS  IN  FINAL  SYLLABLES 

956.  Most  nouns  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  have  a  long 
vowel :  as,  bos,  6s  (oris),  par,  sol,  vis. 

But  the  vowel- is  short  in  c6r,  5s  (bssis),  qufit,  tfit,  and  vir. 

957.  Most  monosyllabic  particles  have  a  short  vowel :  as,  in, 
CIS,  n6c,  and  the  attached  (enclitic)  particles  -c6,  -n6,  -qu6,  -v6. 

But  the  vowel  is  long  in  cur,  nOn,  and  quin. 

958.  Most  adverbs    in   c    have  a  long  vowel  in  the  final 
syllable  :  as,  hie,  hue,  illic,  illuc,  sic. 

959.  Final  a  is  long  in  the   ablative   singular  of  the   first 
declension,  in  imperatives  (except  putfi),  and  in  indeclinable 


QUANTITY  349 

words  except  iU  and  quil.     Elsewhere  it  is  generally  short. 
Thus,  tuba  (abl.),  amft,  frQstrft,  triginti,  but  tub*  (nom.),  anlmfilift. 

960.  Final  e  is  long  — 

a.  In  all  monosyllables  except  enclitics  (§  957) :  as,  m€,  tC. 
&.  In  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension :  as,  r^,  fldC. 

c.  In  the  active  imperative  singular  of  the  second  conjugation : 
as.  monS. 

d.  In  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second 
declension,  except  bene  and  male :  as,  longg.  facUlimg. 

«.   In  some  Greek  words :  as,  Phoeb€,  Circ6. 
Elsewhere  it  is  short. 

961.  Final  i  is  long :  as,  eiti,  sui,  audi. 

But  it  is  regularly  short  in  nisi  and  quasi,  and  usually  in  mihi,  tibi, 
sibi,  ibi,  ubi,  and  in  some  Greek  vocatives :  as,  ChlOrl 

962.  Final  0  is  regularly  long. 

But  it  is  short  in  eg6,  du6,  and  modd,  sometimes  in  imm5  and  pro- 
fectfi,  and  rarely  in  the  first  person  singular  of  verbs. 

963.  Final  u  is  long. 

964.  In  final  as,  es,  and  os  the  vowel  is  long. 

But  it  is  short  in  the  following : 

a.  Greek  plurals  in  -as  or  -es :  as,  lampadAs,  TrWs. 

b.  Nominative  singular  in  -es  of  most  consonant  stems :  as,  milfis, 
obsSs. 

965.  In  final  is  and  us  the  vowel  is  short. 

But  it  is  long  in  the  following : 
a.  Plural  case  forms  in  -is :  as,  bonis,  nObis,  partis. 
6.  The  second  person  singular  in  -is  in  the  present  indicative  active 
of  the  fourth  conjugation  :  as,  audis.    Also  fis,  vis. 

c.  The  second  person  singular  in  -is  in  the  present  subjunctive 
active  of  some  irregular  verbs :  as,  mills,  nOlis,  sis,  velis. 


350  QUANTITY 

d.  All  the  forms  in  -us  of  the  fourth  declension  except  the  nomi- 
native singular :  as,  fructus  (gen.). 

e.  Nominative  singular  in  -us  of  nouns  of  the  third  declension 
having  long  u  in  the  other  cases :  as,  virtus,  virtutis,  but  pecfis, 
pecudis. 

QUANTITY  OF  SYLLABLES 

966.  A  syllable  is  long  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel  or  a  diph- 
thong :  as,  u-nus,  men-sa,  aes-tas,  aus-pex. 

967.  A  syllable  is  long  if  it  ends  in  a  consonant  which  is 
followed  by  another  consonant.  Such  a  syllable  is  said  to  be 
long  by  position.    Thus,^  ad-ven-tiis,  p8s-co,  Sr-mS. 

Note.  The  syllables  underlined  in  the  words  above  are  long  by  position, 
but  the  vowel  in  each  is  short  and  should  be  so  pronounced.  Vowel  length 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  syllable  length.  Sometimes  a  syllable 
long  by  position  contains  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong.  It  is  then  long  for 
both  reasons. 

a.  The  second  of  the  two  consonants  making  a  syllable  long  by 
position  may  be  the  initial  letter  of  the  word  following.  Thus,  in 
nullliin  sperarg  the  syllable  -l&m  is  long  by  position. 

968.  A  syllable  is  regularly  long  if  its  vowel  is  followed  by  conso- 
nant i :  as,  major,  aio,  peius,  Gaius,  Pompeius. 

Note.  So  also  in  compounds  of  iacio,  where  the  consonant  i  is  pro- 
nounced though  not  written:  as,  obicio  (for  ob-iicio),  inicio  (for  in-iicio), 
reicio  (for  re-iicio).  So,  too,  in  the  genitives  Gai  (for  Gaii),  Pomgei  (for 
Pompeii). 

969.  When  a  short  vowel  is  followed  by  a  mute  with  1  or  r,  the 
syllable  may  be  either  long  or  short,  and  is  said  to  be  common  in 
quantity  :  as,  pStris  or  pStris. 

Note.  The  quantity  of  such  syllables  depends  on  the  way  in  which  the 
word  is  divided.  Thus  in  pSt-ris  the  first  syllable  is  long  because  t  is 
pronounced  with  a  and  the  syllable  ends  in  a  consonant  (see  §  27)  On 
the  other  hand,  in  pS-tris  the  t  goes  with  the  last  syllable,  and  the  first 
syllable  ends  in  a  short  vowel  and  is  therefore  short  (§  28). 

1  The  syllables  long  by  position  are  underlined. 


VERSIFICATION  351 

METERS  AND  VERSE  FORMS 

970.  A  single  line  of  poetry  is  called  a  verse. 

971.  A  verse,  like  a  bar  of  music,  consists  of  a  succession 
of  measures.    These  are  called /<?^/. 

972.  A  foot  is  a  succession  of  syllables  arranged  in  a 
recognized  group. 

973.  The  unit  of  measure  in  versification  is  one  short  syllable. 
This  is  called  a  mora.  It  is  represented  by  the  sign  v^,  or  in 
musical  notation  by  the  quarter  note  (j^).  A  long  syllable  is 
regularly  equal  to  two  rnoric,  and  is  represented  by  the  sign  — , 
or  by  the  half  note  (P). 

974.  A  foot  contains  as  many  morce  or  beats  as  it  has  short 
syllables,  a  long  syllable  being  always  counted  equal  to  two 
short  ones. 

975.  The  kinds  of  feet  most  frequently  used,  together  with 
their  musical  notation,  are  the  following : 

Trochee,  _  v>  or  Pi*,  containing  three  beats  or  mora 

Iambus,  w  _  or  |*  f^,  containing  three  beats  or  mora 

Dactyl,  _  v^  w  or  P  ^  ^^  containing  four  beats  or  mora 

Anapaest,  v^  v^  _  or  C  T  (^t  containing  four  beats  or  mora 

Spondee, or  P  (^,  containing  four  beats  or  mora 

a.  A  verse  is  named  from  its  fundamental,  or  characteristic,  foot : 
as.  Trochaic,  Iambic,  Dactylic,  Anapaestic ;  and  from  the  number  of 
measures  which  it  contains:  as,  Hexameter  (sL\  measures),  Pen- 
tameter (five  measures),  Tetrameter  (four  measures).  Trimeter  (three 

measures). 

976.  Trochaic  and  iambic  verses  are  measured,  not  by  single  feet, 
but  by  pairs ;  so  that,  for  example,  six  iambic  feet  make  a  trimeter, 
or  three  measures. 


352  VERSIFICATION 

977.  Substitution.  A  long  syllable  may  take  the  place  of 
two  short  ones,  or  two  short  syllables  the  place  of  a  long  one. 

Thus,  a  spondee  ( )  may  take  the  place  of  a  dactyl  (_  w  w) 

or  of  an  anapaest  (w  w  _). 

978.  Ictus.  One  syllable  in  each  foot  is  pronounced  with 
greater  stress  than  the  others.  This  verse  beat,  or  musical 
accent,  is  called  the  ictics  and  is  marked  thus  :  ^  w  w.  The 
ictus  does  not  destroy  the  word  accent,  but  is  subordinate  to  it. 

Note.  Many  hold,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  ictus  is  superior  to  the 
word  accent  and  destroys  it  when  in  conflict  with  it  (see  §  993.  b). 

979.  Thesis  and  Arsis.  That  part  of  the  foot  which  receives 
the  ictus  is  called  the  thesis ;  the  unaccented  part  is  called 
the  arsis. 

Note.  Thesis  means  properly  XhQ  putting  down,  and  arsis  the  raising, 
of  the  foot  in  the  march  or  dance.  The  regular  alternation  of  thesis  and 
arsis  constitutes  the  rhythm  of  poetr}'. 

980.  Scansion.  To  divide  a  verse  into  its  measures  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  quantity  and  versification  is  called  scannijig 
or  scansion. 

981.  Elision.  In  scanning,  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong,  or 
m  with  a  preceding  vowel,  is  regularly  elided  before  a  word 
beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h ;  that  is,  the  final  and  initial 
syllables  are  blended  and  pronounced  as  one  syllable. 

The  following  line  shows  three  elisions : 

mSnstr'™  hor|r6nd'*™,  in|f6rm«,  in|gens,  cui|lumen  a|demptuin 

« 
The  nature  of  elision  as  practiced  by  the  Romans  is  not  certain. 

It  is  customary  to  omit  the  elided  syllables  entirely. 

982.  The  e  of  est  is  lost  after  a  word  ending  in  m,  a  vowel,  or  a 
diphthong,  and  st  is  added  to  the  final  syllable  of  the  preceding  word. 
Thus,  victa  est  is  read  victast,  actum  est  is  read  actumst,  etc. 


VERSIFICATION  353 

983.  Hia'tus.  Sometimes  elision  is  omitted,  especially  when 
the  first  word  is  an  interjection  or  is  followed  by  a  pause  ip 
the  sense.    This  omission  is  called  hiatus. 

6  fitl|n4m  £os|s^  p«pfl(16s  repajrirt  pl|t^mis 
p5stMbI|ti  cdiajissd  Si|ind ;  hie  |  illliis  |  Armi 

In  the  first  line  there  is  hiatus  between  the  interjection  0  and  utinam, 
and  in  the  second  between  SamO  (followed  by  a  pause)  and  hie. 

984.  Syl'laba  An'ceps.  The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  may 
be  cither  long  or  short,  and  is  hence  called  the  syllaba  anccps^ 
or  the  doubtful  syllable. 

985.  Cat'alectic  and  A'catalectic  Verses.  A  catalectic  verse 
is  one  in  which  the  last  foot  is  incomplete.  An  acatalectic 
verse  is  one  in  which  the  last  foot  is  complete. 

986.  Caesu'ra.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  is  called 
ccesura.  This  may  occur  in  any  foot  of  the  verse,  but  when 
it  coincides  with  a  pause  in  the  sense,  we  have  what  is  called  a 
ciesural  pause.  Most  verses  have  only  one  caesural  pause,  but 
there  may  be  two,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  even 
one.    The  position  of  each  caesura  is  marked  by  the  sign  || . 

Note  the  caesural  pauses  in  the  following  verses : 

nunc  gA|d^m  for|tiin&  yi|r5s  ||  tot  |  cislbiis  |  ictSs 
ins6qul|tur.    ||  Quern  |  dis  f!|n6m,  ||  rex  |  mignfe,  lX|b6riiffl  ? 

Note.  The  pause  in  the  sense  marking  the  position  of  the  ca?sural  pause 
may  be  too  slight  to  be  marked  by  a  punctuation  point  (cf .  the  first  line  above). 

987.  Diaer'esis.  The  ending  of  a  word  with  the  end  of  a 
foot  is  called  diceresis.  There  may  be  a  pause  in  the  sense  at  a 
diaeresis.  This  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  caesural  pause,  but  it 
may  be  marked  in  the  same  way. 

Note  the  diaeresis  with  pause  in  the  following  verse : 
cSnstltIt,  II  it  Lib|yaS  d6|fixit  j  IQmInX  |  rJgnia 


354  VERSIFICATION 

SPECIAL  IRREGULARITIES 

988.  Synize'sis  or  Synaer'esis.  Two  vowels  of  different  syllables 
may  be  pronounced  together  as  one  long  syllable:  as,  deinde  for 
de-inde,  meos  for  me-6s,  deesse  for  de-esse,  dehinc  for  de-hinc. 

989.  Sys'tole.  A  syllable  regularly  long  is  sometimes  used  as 
short:   as,  stetenint  for  steterunt. 

990.  Dias'tole.  A  final  syllable  regularly  short  is  sometimes  used 
as  long.  Such  a  syllable  is  nearly  always  one  receiving  the  ictus  and 
followed  by  the  cassural  pause. 

luctus,  u|bique  pa|v6r,*  ||  et  |  plurima  |  m6rtis   i|mag6 
6sten|tins  arlt^mque  pa|ter*  ||  ar|cumque  so|ndntem 

Note.  Both  systole  and  diastole  are  sometimes  merely  a  return  to  an 
earlier  pronunciation. 

991.  The  vowels  i  and  u  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants, 
i  having  the  sound  of  y,  and  u  of  w.  The  preceding  syllable  then 
becomes  long  by  position :  as,  ab-ie-te  (abyete)  for  a-bi-e-te,  gen-ua 
(getiwd)  for  ge-nu-a. 

a.  Conversely,  consonant  i  and  v  are  sometimes  used  as  vowels : 
as,  si-lu-a  for  sil-va. 

992.  Tme'sis.  The  component  parts  of  a  compound  word  are 
sometimes  separated:  as,  quod  erit  cumque  for  quodcumque  erit. 
This  is  called  tmesis  (cutting). 

RULES  FOR  ORAL  READING  OF  VERSE 

993.  Ancient  poetry  was  written  for  rhythmical  recitation, 
chanting,  or  singing.  It  is,  therefore,  especially  through  much  oral 
reading  that  metrical  composition  can  be  best  understood,  appreci- 
ated,, and  enjoyed.  The  following  directions  should  be  observed  : 

a.  Pronounce  the  words  as  in  prose. 

This  includes  the  proper  sounding  of  each  letter,  the  correct  placing  of 
the  accent,  and  a  careful  observance  of  the  quantity  of  each  syllable,  A 
long  syllable  should  have  twice  as  much  time  as  a  short  one. 


DACTYLIC  VERSE 


355 


*.  Stress  slightly  the  syllables  upon  which  the  ictus  falls. 

Sometimes  the  word  accent  and  the  ictus  coincide ;  but  when  they  fall 
on  different  syllables  of  the  same  word,  the  word  accent  should  be  given 
the  greater  stress  and  the  ictus  be  made  subordinate  to  it*  In  this  way  the 
word  accent  will  be  preserved  and  at  the  same  time  the  rhythm  of  the  verse 
distinctly  maintained  as  an  undertone. 

c.  Give  attention  to  the  thought  as  well  as  to  the  words,  and  do 
not  come  to  a  complete  stop  at  thp  end  of  every  verse,  regardless  of 
punctuation. 

994.  Apprehension  of  rhythm  and  quantity  is  greatly  assisted  by 
beating  time  to  the  measure  as  in  music,  the  long  syllables  receiving 
two  beats  and  the  short  syllables  one. 

DACTYLIC  VERSE 
DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER 

995.  Dactylic  hexameter  is  the  meter  used  by  Greek  and 
Roman  epic  poets,  and  is  often  called  Heroic  Verse.  It  con- 
sists theoretically  of  six  dactyls  (—  ^  ^) ;  but  a  spondee  ( ) 

may  take  the  place  of  a  dactyl  in  any  foot  except  the  fifth,  and 

the  sixth  foot  may  be  either  a  spondee  ( )  or  a  trochee 

(_  v/),  the  last  syllable  of  a  line  being  either  long  or  short 
(§  984).    The  verse  may  be  represented  thus : 

Cv5  I  ^J^  1  —  C^  I  —  vi^  I  —  ^^  I  —  — 

Example  : 

it  81    fit&  dS  um,  8i    mins  n5n    laevi  fii  iss£t 

rrrrrrr  r  r  rrrrr 

a.  Rarely  a  spondee  is  found  in  the  fifth  foot ;  the  verse  is  then 
called  spondaHc  and  usually  ends  with  a  word  of  four  syllables. 
pr6xhnas    hul'c,  lonlgO  sed    grdximtts    inter  yall5 

r^^  r  &r  rrrrrrr 

»  Many  dissent  from  this  view  and  give  the  greater  stress  to  the  ictus,  even 
to  the  complete  neglect  of  the  word  accent. 


356  VERSIFICATION 

996.  The  Caesu'ral  Pause.  The  dactylic  hexameter  has 
regularly  one  caesural  pause,  sometimes  two,  accompanied  by 
a  pause  in  the  sense  (§  986). 

997.  The  caesural  pause  is  usually  after  the  thesis  of  the 
third  foot. 

ht  si  I  flta  de|um,  ||  si  |  mens  non  |  laeva  fu|lsset 

998.  Less  frequently  the  caesural  pause  is  after  the  thesis  of  the 
fourth  foot,  usually  with  a  second  caesura  in  the  second  foot. 

non  galejae,  ||  n5n  |  ensis  e|rdt:  ||  sine  |  militis  j  usu 

a.  A  pause  in  the  sense  in  the  fourth  foot,  with  no  such  pause  in 
the  third,  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  caesura  is  in  the  fourth  foot 
and  not  in  the  third. 

999.  Occasionally  the  caesural  pause  is  between  the  two  short 
syllables  of  the  third  foot,  its  presence  there  being  indicated  by  a 
pause  in  the  sense. 

membra  so|lo  posu|ere ;  ||  si|mul  sup|rema  ia|c6ntes 

a.  Such  a  caesura  is  called  feminine,  while  one  occurring  after  the 
first  syllable  of  a  foot  is  called  masculine.  A  masculine  caesura  is  far 
more  common  than  a  feminine. 

1000.  Sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  caesural  pause 
with  certainty,  and  a  diaeresis  (§  987)  may  take  the  place  of  the 
caesural  pause. 

s^ntiat.    II  At  quoni|dm  con|currere  |  c6niminus  |  h6sti 

1001.  The  dactylic  hexameter  rarely  ends  in  a  monosyllable. 

1002.  The  first  seven  verses  of  Vergil's  yEneid  afford  a  good 
example  of  dactylic  hexameter,  and  are  scanned  as  follows : 

Arm5  vi|rumqu6  ca|n6  ||  Trojiae  qui  |  primus  Sb  |  oris 
italij^  fa|t5  pr5fii|gus  ||  Lajvfnijqug  |  v§nit 


DACTYLIC  VERSE  357 

liWri,  I  mult—  il|l«  it  terjris  ||  iac|titiia  6t  |  Alto 
vi  sap6|rum  sae|Yae  in6md|r^  Iu|ndnl8  db  |  irim ; 
mulUl  qud|qu*  it  beljld  ^jsus  {|  dum  |  c6nd6rtt  |  urbdm, 
infer|r^qu6  di|68  Utlp,  ||  ggnfls  |  und6  La|ti'niSin 
Alba|niqu6  pi[|tre's  ||  atjqu*  Altae  {  motnli  |  R5mae. 

a.  Dactylic  hexameter  in  English  verse  is  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing lines  from  Longfellow's  "  Evangeline  "  : 

This  is  the  forest  primeval.   The  murmuring  pines  and  the  hemlocks, 
Bearded  with  moss,  and  in  garments  green,  indistinct  in  the  twilight, 
Stand  like  Druids  of  eld,  with  voices  sad  and  prophetic, 
Stand  like  harpers  hoar,  with  beau-ds  that  rest  on  their  bosoms. 

DACTYLIC  PENTAMETER 

1003.  The  dactylic  pentameter  is  the  same  as  the  hexameter 
except  that  it  omits  the  unaccented  part  (arsis)  of  the  third  foot 
and  of  the  sixth  foot.  It  consists  therefore  of  two  parts,  each 
of  which  contains  two  dactyls  and  a  long  syllable.  The  first 
half  of  the  verse  always  ends  with  a  word  and  is  followed  by  a 
pause.    The  scheme  of  the  verse  is  as  follows : 

Spondees  may  take  the  place  of  the  dactyls  in  the  first  half, 
but  not  in  the  second,  and  the  last  syllable  of  the  line  may  be 
either  long  or  short  (§  984). 

1004.  Elegi'ac  Dis'tich.  The  dactylic  f)entameter  is  rarely 
used  alone,  but  regularly  combines  with  a  preceding  hexameter 
to  form  a  couplet  (distich),  as  illustrated  in  English  by  — 

In  the  hexjameter  |  rises  I|  the  |  fountain's  |  silvery  |  column. 
In  the  pcn|tamcter  |  aye  x  falling  in  |  melody  ]  back. 


358  DACTYLIC  VERSE 

This  form  of  verse  became  the  favorite  of  writers  of  Latin 
elegy,  such  as  Catullus,  Tibullus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid,  and 
hence  it  is  known  as  the  elegiac  distich,  or  elegiac  stanza. 
The  distich  is  generally  a  unit  in  thought  as  well  as  in  form, 
the  sense  rarely  being  left  uncompleted  at  its  close. 

1005.  The  following  verses  from  Ovid  well  illustrate  the 
elegiac  distich  : 

Cum  subit  |  illi|us  tris[tissiina  |  n6ctis  ijmago 
qua  miW  |  supre[mum   x  t6mpus  in  j  urbS  fu|it, 

cum  repe|to  noc|t6m,  ||  qua  |  t6t  mihi  |  cara  re|liqul, 
labitur  |  6x  6cu|lis   x  nunc  qu5que  |  gutta  mg|is. 


APPENDIX 


THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR 


1006.  In  earlier  times  the  Romans  designated  the  year  of  an 
event  by  the  names  of  the  consuls,  in  the  ablative  absolute : 
as,  M.  Messala  M.  PisOne  cOnsulibus,  /;/  the  consulship  of  Marcus 
Messala  and  Marcus  Pisa,  Later  the  year  was  reckoned  from 
the  founding  of  the  city  (ab  urbe  conditi  or  ann5  urbis  conditae, 
abbreviated  to  a.u.c),  the  date  of  which  is  assigned  to  the 
year  753  b.c.  In  order,  therefore,  to  find  the  year  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  corresponding  to  a  given  Roman  date  A.u.c,  the 
number  of  the  Roman  year  must  be  subtracted  from  754, 
I  being  added  to  753  to  allow  for  the  Roman  custom  of  includ- 
ing both  extremes  when  reckoning  the  difference  between  two 
numbers.  For  example,  Caesar  was  killed  in  710  a.u.c,  or 
44  (754-710)  B.C. 

1007.  Before  Julius  Caesar's  reform  of  the  calendar  (46  b.c) 
the  Roman  year  consisted  of  355  days.  All  the  months  had 
29  days  except  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  which  had 
31  days,  and  February,  which  had  28.  As  this  calendar  year 
was  too  short  for  the  solar  year,  a  month  of  varying  length 
(mgnsis  intercalaris)  was  inserted  every  other  year  after  February  23, 
the  rest  of  February  being  omitted. 

1008.  The  Julian  calendar,  as  reformed  by  Julius  and 
Augustus  Caesar,  had  365  days,  divided  into  months  as  at 
present,  February  having  29  days  every  fourth  year.  The 
Julian  calendar  remained  unchanged  till  the  adoption  of  the 
Gregorian  calendar,  A.n.  1582,  which  omits  leap  year  three 
times  in  every  four  hundred  years. 

359 


36o  THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR 

1009.  The  names  of  the  months,  used  as  mascuUne  or  fem- 
inine adjectives,  were  as  follows  : 

lanuarius,  -a,  (-um)  Maius,  -a,  (-um)  September,  -bris,  (-bre) 

Februarius,  -a,  (-um)  lunius,  -a,  (-um)  October,  -bris,  (-bre) 

Martius,  -a,  (-um)  Quintilis,  (-e)  November,  -bris,  (-bre) 

Aprilis,  (-e)  Sextilis,  (-e)  December,  -bris,  (-bre) 

The  year  was  formerly  regarded  as  beginning  with  March, 
which  made  July  the  fifth  (quintilis)  month,  August  the  sixth 
(sextilis),  etc.  The  month  Quintilis  was  later  called  lulius  in 
honor  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  Sextilis  was  called  Augustus  in  honor 
of  the  emperor  Augustus. 

1010.  Dates  were  reckoned  from  three  points  in  the  month, 
namely,  the  Calends  (Kalendae,  -arum,  f.),  the  first  day  of  the 
month  ;  the  Nones  (Nonae,  -arum,  f.),  the  fifth  day ;  and  the 
Ides  (idus,  iduum,  f.),  the  thirteenth.  * 

However,  in  March,  May,  July,  and  October  the  Nones  fell 
on  the  seventh  day,  and  the  Ides  on  the  fifteenth. 

Kalendae      Nonae  Idus  Kalendae 


^  I      I  r       ^1  I 

I  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  lo  r  I   12  13  14  15  i6  ...  27  28  29  30  31   i 

An  event  occurring  at  any  one  of  these  points  was  said  to 
occur  on  the  Calends,  on  the  Nones,  or  on  the  Ides,  and  the 
date  was  expressed  by  the  simple  ablative  of  time.  The  noun 
denoting  the  date  was  modified  by  the  adjective  representing 
the  month  in  question. 

Kalendis  Februariis,  on  the  first  of  February 
Nonis  Aprilibus,  on  the  fifth  of  April 
Nonis  Octobribus,  on  the  seventh  of  October 
idibus  lanuariis,  07i  the  thirteenth  of  January 
idibus  Martiis,  on  the  fifteenth  of  March 

a.  From  the  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides  the  dates  in  the  month  were 
reckoned  backwards.  The  date  immediately  preceding  any  one  of  them 


THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR  361 

was  expressed  by  the  word  pridifi,  used  as  a  preposition  followed  by 
the  accusatives  Kalendas,  NOnis,  Idas,  modified  by  the  adjective  form 
of  the  word  denoting  the  month. 

prldie  Kalendas  Februarias,  the  thiriy-Jirst  of  January 
pridie  Nonas  lanuarias,  the  fourth  of  January 
pridie  Idus  Martias,  the  fourteenth  of  March 
pridie  Idus  Septembres,  the  twelfth  of  September 

b.  The  dates  intervening  between  any  two  points  were  counted 
as  so  many  days  before  the  second  point.  The  Romans,  however, 
in  reckoning  a  series,  counted  both  extremes;  for  exaifiple,  the 
eleventh  day  of  April  was  counted  as  the  thin^  day  before  the 
Ides  (that  is,  the  thirteenth),  the  tenth  of  April  as  the  fourth  day 
before  the  Ides.  And  in  counting  back  from  the  Calends  to  a  date 
in  the  preceding  month  the  Calends  were  included ;  thus  a  Roman 
would  say  that  there  are  four  days  from  August  29  to  September  i 
(of.  §  \012.d). 

In  expressing  dates  the  phrase  ante  diem  (translated  the  day  before) 
was  used  with  the  accusatives  Kalendas,  N6nas,  Idus,  the  word  diem 
being  modified  by  the  proper  ordinal  numeral. 

ante  diem  quirtum  Kalendas  SeptembrSs,  the  fourth  day  before  the 

Calends  of  September  {A  Ui^nst  2g) 
ante  diem  quartum  Kalendas  OctdbrSs,  the  fourth  day  before  the 

Calends  of  October  {September  2S) 
ante  diem  sextum  IdQs  Martias,  the  sixth  day  before  the  Jdes  of 

March  (Afarch  JO) 
ante  diem  quintum  N5nas  Maias,  the  fifth  day  before  the  Nones  of 

May  {May  J) 

Note  i  .  These  expressions  were  generally  abbreviated  as  follows : 

a.d.  IV.  Kal.  Sept.  or  IV.  Kal.  Sept. 
a.d.  VI.  id.  Mart,  or  VI.  id.  Mart, 
a.  d.  V.  Ndn.  MaUa  or  V.  Non.  Maifta 

Note  2.  The  phrase  ante  diem  probably  originated  thus :  the  ablative 
form  denoting  time  when  (followed  by  ante),  as,  di5  tertio  ante  etc..  came 
to  be  written  after  ante  instead  of  before  it ;  subsequently  ante  diS  tertifi 
became  ante  diem  tertium,  as  if  the  noun  were  governed  by  ante. 


362  THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR 

c.  The  whole  expression  denoting  a  date  was  sometimes  treated 
as  a  single  substantive  governed  by  a  preposition. 

in  a.  d,  V.  Kal.  Nov.,  to  the  fifth  day  before  the  Calends  of  November 

{October  28) 
opus  contulit  in  ante  diem  III.  Id.  Oct.,  he  postponed  the  ivork  to  the 

third  day  before  the  Ides  of  October  {October  ij) 

1011.  To  find  the  equivalent  in  English  for  a  date  given  in 
Latin,  observe  the  following  rule  : 

If  the,  given  Latin  date  is  counted  from  the  Calends,  add  two  to 
the  number  of  days  in  the  preceding  month,  and  from  the  number 
thus  ascertained  subtract  the  given  date ;  if  from  the  Nones  or  the 
Ides,  add  o?ie  to  the  day  on  which  they  fall,  and  from  the  number 
thus  ascertained  subtract  the  given  date. 

a.  d.  VI.  Kal.  Ian.  (31  +  2  —  6),  December  27 
a.  d.  V.  Non.  Oct.  (7  +  i  —  5),  October  j 
a.  d.  III.  id.  Apr.  (13  +  i  —  3),  April  11 

1012.  To  express  an  English  date  in  Latin  observe  the 
following  rules : 

fl.  If  the  date  is  that  on  which  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  respec- 
tively fall,  use  the  simple  ablative  of  time  (Kalendis,  Nonis,  or  Idibus) 
modified  by  the  adjective  representing  the  month  in  question  (cf. 
§  loio). 

h.  If  the  date  immediately  precedes  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides, 
use  pridig  followed  by  the  accusative  Kalendas,  Nonas,  or  Idus,  as 
the  case  may  be,  and  the  adjective  form  of  the  word  denoting  the 
month  (cf .  §  i  o  i  o.  «). 

c.  If  the  date  falls  between  the  first  and  the  fourth  (or  the  sixth  of 
March,  May,  July,  or  October),  subtract  one  from  the  English  date,  and 
subtract  this  remainder  from  the  date  on  which  the  Nones  fall.  The  num- 
ber thus  obtained  (usually  preceded  by  ante  diem  or  a.d.)  followed  by 
Nonas  or  Non.  and  the  name  of  the  month  will  be  the  expression  desired. 

If  the  date  falls  between  the  fifth  and  twelfth  (or  the  seventh  and 
fourteenth  of  March,  May,  July,  or  October),  follow  the  rule  above, 
substituting  the  Ides  for  the  Nones  (cf.  §  loio.  ^). 


THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR  363 

d.  If  the  date  is  later  than  the  thirteenth  (or  fifteenth  of  March, 
May,  July,  or  October),  subtract  t^vo  from  the  English  date,  and  sub- 
tract this  remainder  from  the  number  of  days  in  the  month.  The 
number  thus  obtained  (usually  preceded  by  ante  diem  or  a.  d.) 
followed  by  Kalendfts  or  Kal.  and  the  name  of  the  fuxi  month  ^will  be 
the  expression  desired  (cf .  §  1010.  /^). 


ABBREVIATIONS 


abl.  =  ablative 
abs.  =  absolute 
ace.  =  accusative 
act.  =  active 
adj.  =  adjective 
adv.  =  adverb 
a/p.  =  appositive 
attrib.  =  attributive 
cf.  (confer)  =  compare 
el.  =  clause 
cotN/>.  =  composition 
com/a?:  =  comparison 
comps.  =  compounds 
conj.  =  conjugation 
eofis.  =  consonant 
cotisir.  =  construction 
dai.  =  dative 
deel.  =  declension 
defect.  =  defective 
descript.  =  descriptive 
dir.  =  direct 
fem.  =  feminine 
^.  =  and  following 


ftn.  =  footnote 

f/f.  =  future 

gen.  =  genitive 

id.  (idem)  =  the  same 

impers.  —  impersonal 

imv.  =  imperative 

ind.  disc.  =  indirect  dis- 
course 

ifid.  quest.  =  indirect 
question 

indecl.  =  indeclinable 

indie.  =  indicative 

inf.  =  infinitive 

interrog.  =  interrogative 

inirans.  =:  intransitive 

loc.  =  locative 

masc.  =  masculine 

N.  =  Note 

neg.  =  negative 

nettt.  =  neuter 

nam.  =  nominative 

obf  =  object 

part.  =  participle 


pass.  =  passive 
Perf.  =  perfect 
pers.  =  personal 
p/ur.  =  plural 
poss.  =  possessive 
pred.  =  predicate 
prep.  =  preposition 
pj-es.  =  present 
Pfin.  =  principal 
pron.  =  pronoun 
quest.  =  question 
rt/.  =  relative 
sing.  =  singular 
subj.  =  subject 
subjz'.  =  subjunctive 
subord.  =  subordinate 
siibst.  =  substantive 
superl.  =  superlative 
trans.  —  transitive 
vb.  =  verb 
voc.  =  vocative 
w.  =  with 


Other  abbreviations  need  no  explanation.  When  only  the  last  article  in  a  reference 
group  needs  to  be  consulted,  the  parts  of  the  group  are  separated  by  periods  ;  otherwise 
commas  are  used. 


364 


INDEX 


a.  sound,  1 4 ;  quantity  of  final,  959 
8,  weakened  to  e  or  i,  44.  a,  if\  ace. 

of  Greek  nouns  in,  1 1 1 .  ^ 
a,  distinguishing  vowel  in  decl.  1, 75 ; 
in  fern.  Greek  nouns,  decl.  I, 
81  ;  inconj.  I,  210,  220.  a,  229. 
a.  I,  289 ;  in  fut.  indie,  229.  ^; 
in  pres.  subjv.,  233.  a 
a  (ab,  abs),  general  use,  277.  a;  as 
prefix,  294.  a  ;  in  comps.  w.  dat. 
of  reference  expressing  separa- 
tion, 389 ;  w.  ^bl.  of  separation, 
440.  a  ;  w.  abl.  of  place  whence, 
441 ;  w.  names  of  towns,  442. 
a ;  expressing  position,  445  ;  w. 
gerund  and  gerundive,  879 
a  dextra,   a  fronte,  d  tergO,  etc., 

445.  a 
a-declension,  77-81 
Abbreviations  of  praenomina,  134.  a 
abhinc,  w.  ace,  425  ;  w.  abl.,  477 
Ablative  case,  defined,  74 

Forms :  abl.  in  -abus,  80.  e ;  of 
i-stems,  decl.  Ill,  100,  103, 
105;  list  of  nouns  having  -i  or 
-i  and  -e  in  abl.  sing.,  102.  d, 
c,  (/;  abl.  in  -ubus,  decl.  IV, 
\2\.c\  in  -ud,  early  Latin,  id. 
/:  abl.  of  adjs.,  decl.  Ill,  145. 
148.  a;  of  pres.  parts.,  149; 
of  pers.  prons..  180.  by  d\  of 
rd.  prons.,  qui,  quia,  193.  <z, 
b\   adverbial  forms  of  abl., 


271.  b,  d\  abl.  of  decl.  IV 
used  as  supine,  881 
Syntax:  classification  and  general 
meaning,  439 

With  preps.,  277,  278 

Separation,  440;  prep,  ex- 
pressed, id.  a ;  prep,  omitted, 
id.  b ;  exceptions,  id.  N. 

IMace  whence,  441  ;  w.  names 
of  towns,  domus,  rus.  442: 
prep,  used  w.  urbs,  oppidum, 
insula,  443;  prep,  omitted  in 
poetry,  444 ;  expressing  place 
where,  445 

Comparison,  446;  when  not 
admissible,  id.  a  ;  after  citius 
and  celerius,  id.  ^ ;  in  poetry, 
447 ;  regular  in  neg.  sen- 
tences, 448;  w.  rel.,  449: 
constr.  after  plus,  minus,  am- 
plius,  longius,  450 

Origin,  451;  ex  used  with  pro- 
nouns, id.  a 

Material,  452  ;  prep.  Omitted  in 
poetry,  id.  a ;  abl.  w.  facere, 
fieri,  etc.,  id.  b 

Agent,  453 ;  distinguished  from 
abl.  of  means,  id.  N.  2;  w. 
things  personified,  454 ;  prep, 
omitted,  455.  N. 

Accompaniment,  '456 ;  cum 
omitted,  id.  a 

Attendant  circumstance,  457 


365 


366 


INDEX 


Accordance,  458 

Manner,  459;  cum  omitted, 460, 
461 

Cause  or  reason,  462 ;  causa, 
gratia,  463  ;  ace.  w.  ob  or 
propter  used  instead,  464 ; 
prae  w.  abl.  to  denote  prevent- 
ing cause,  465 

Description  or  quality,  466 ;  in 
pred.,  467 

Means,  468;  w.  utor,  fruor,  etc., 
469.  a ;  w.  opus  and  usus, 
id.  b\  w.  contentus  and  fretus, 
id.  c. ;  w.  vbs.  and  adjs.  of 
fullness,  id.  d 

Price,  470  ;  indefinite  price  ex- 
pressed by  gen.,  471.;  constr. 
w.  miito,  472  ;  w.  vbs.  of  con- 
demning to  denote  the  pen- 
alty, 473 

Way  by  which,  474 

Measure  of  difference,  475 ; 
quo  .  .  .  eo,  quanto  .  .  .  tanto, 
476 ;    w.  ante,  post,  abhinc, 

477 

Respect,  478  ;  w.  dignus,  indig- 
nus,  479;  in  supine,  882.  II 

Absolute,  480  ;  w.  two  nouns  or 
noun  and  adj.,  481  ;  when 
admissible,  482  ;  w.  part,  or 
adj.  without  a  subst.,  483 ;  re- 
placing subord.  cl.,  484 

Place  where,  485;  prep,  omitted, 
id.  a  and  N. ;  w.  vbs.  of  plac- 
ing, 490 

Time,  492  ;  w.  prep,  in,  493  ; 
duration  of  time,  423  ;  ex- 
pressing place  rather  than 
time,  494 ;  idiomatic  expres- 
sions, 495 


Gerund  and   gerundive,   879 ; 

w.  dir.  obj.,  id.  N. 
Supine,  882.  II 

Ablaut,  56,  57 

Absolut©  case,  see  Abl.  absolute 

absque,  277 

Abstract  nouns,  plur.  of,  1 26.  c ;  w. 
neut.  adj.,  502.  2.  b.  N.  2 

Abundance,  words  of,  w.  abl.  of 
means,  469.  d 

-abus,  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  decl.  I, 
80.^ 

ac,  see  atque 

ac  si,  w.  subjv.,  803 

Acatalectic  and  catalectic  verse,  985 

acceditut,  739 

Accent,  rules  of,  35-41  ;  original 
accent  and  its  effect  on  vowels, 
36,  42  ff. ;  in  comps.  of  faci5, 
38.  a ;  in  gen.  sing,  in  decl.  II, 
88.  b ;  musical  accent,  978 

accidit  quod,  822  ;  accidit  ut,  7^9 

accommodatus,  w.  dat.  of  gerund, 

877 
Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  456 ;  cum 

omitted  w.,  id.  a 
Accordance  with,  denoted  by  abl.  ,458 
Accusative  case,  defined,  74 

Forms  :  in  -a  in  neut.  plur.,  76,  b\ 
in  -m  in  sing,  and  -s  in  plur. 
of  masc.  and  fem.,  id.  c ;  in 
i-stems,  decl.  Ill,  100,  102..  b\ 
neut.  sing,  used  as  adv., 
271.  «;  fem.  used  as  adv., 
id.  c\  ace.  of  decl.  IV  used 
as  supine,  881 
Syntax:  general  meaning,  402; 
classification,  403 
With  preps.,  276,  278 ;  w.  ante 
diem,  loio.  /^ 


INDEX 


367 


With  ad  after  r§fert  and  interest 
to  denote  the  object  sought^ 

With  vbs.  of  remembering  and 
forgetting  instead  of  gen., 
358.  a,  b,  359 

With  vbs.  of  reminding,  361 

With  impers.  vbs.,  363,  407 

Along  w.  dat.,  371 

With  vbs.  of  motion  that  some- 
times take  the  dat.,  373 

Construction  w.  d6n6,  circumdd, 
exu6.  374 

With  iuv6,  laed5,  iubeo,  and  the 
like,  376.  a 

With  credo,  imper5,  minor,  per- 
suaded, 380 

Withcomps.  of  ad.ante,circum, 
etc.,  382.  3,  a 

With  propior  and  proximus,40 1 

Direct  object,  404  ;  w.  vbs.  of 
feeling,  406.  a  ;  w.  vbs.  of  mo- 
tion, comps.  of  ad,  circum,  in, 
etc.,  id.  l> ;  in  poetiy,  id.  c ;  w. 
pass.  vbs.  meaning  to  put  on, 
id.  d;  w.  impers.  vbs.,  407; 
w.  pass,  periphrastic,  860.  b 

Kindred  meaning,  408  ;  w.  vbs. 
of  taste  and  smell,  409 ;  ad- 
verbial use  w.  neut.  prons. 
and  adjs.,  410,  41 1 

Two  accusatives,  dir.  obj.  and 
secondary  obj.,  41 2-4  r  5 ;  vbs. 
of  asking  Av.  abl.,  414;  constr. 
w.  pass,  of  rog6,  doced,  etc., 

415 
Two  accusatives,  dir.  obj.  and 

adjunct  ace, 4 1 6-4 1 8 ;  constr. 

in  pass.,  418 
Subjectofinf    •"•  x^o.'^^7^ ''^ 


Extent  and  duration,  420-426 ; 

w.  natus,  422.  a;  w.  per  or  the 

abl.,  423 ;   w.  abhinc,  425 ; 

expressing  degree,  426 

Respect  (Greek  ace),  427;  quod 

cl.  as  ace.  of  respect,  824 
Place  whither,  428-435  ;  names 
of  towns,  domus,  riis,  430, 
433 ;  ad  w.  names  of  towns, 
43 1 ;  ad  urbem  R5mam,  432  ; 
in  poetry,  434 ;  supine,  435, 
882.1 
K.xclamation,  436,437 
Adverbial,  438 
In  ind.  disc.,  839,  887.  I.  a 
Gerund  and  gerundive,  878 
Supine,  882.  I 
Accusing,  condemning,  acquitting, 

vbs.  of,  w.  gen.,  336 
acer,  decl.,  146;  compar.,  155 
-aceus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  c 
acigs,  deck,  125.  </ 
Action,  nouns  of,  formed  from  vbs., 

284.  b ;  w.  objective  gen.,  354 

Active     periphrastic     conjugation, 

takes  place  of  fut.  subjv.,  668.d ; 

in  ind.  quests.,  815;  forms,  859 

Active  voice,  204 ;  change  to  pass., 

405 
acu8,  gender,  1 20 

ad,  use,  276 ;  as  prefix,  294.  a ;  w. 
refert  and  interest  to  denote 
obj.  sought,  352.  <-■;  in  comps. 
w.  dat.,  382 ;  w.  propior  and 
proximus,  401  ;  in  comps.  w. 
ace,  406.^;  w.  ace.  of  place 
whither,  428;  w.  names  of  coun- 
tries, 429 ;  w.  names  of  towns, 
43 1 ;  w.  gerund  and  gerundive, 
878 


368 


INDEX 


adeo  (vb.),  constr.  after,  382.  a 
adeo  ut,  732 

-ades,  patronymic  ending,  282.^ 
adfinis,  w.  gen.,  351  ;  w.  dat,  397 
adgredior,  constr.  after,  382.  ^ 
Adjective   clauses,   defined,   304.  b, 
709.  1 1 ;  rel.  clause,  551;  pur- 
pose,   715;    description,    726- 
730  ;  cause,  730.  I ;  concession, 
id.  II ;  result,  735 
Adjective  pronouns,  see  Pronouns 
Adjectives,  defined,  137 

Forms:  decl.,  138-152;  decls.  I 
and  II,  139-143  ;  nine  irregular 
adjs.,  143;  decl.  Ill,  144-151  ; 
decl.  Ill,  three  terminations, 
1 46 ;  adjs.  using  fem.  forms 
for  masc.  and  vice  versa,  146. 
<^.  N. ;  decl.  Ill,  two  termina- 
tions, 147  ;  decl.  Ill,  one  termi- 
nation, 148 ;  decl.  of  pres.  parts., 
1 49 ;  decl.  of  comparatives,  150; 
decl.  of  pliis,  151;  indecl.  adjs., 
152;  derivation  of  adjs.,  285- 
288";  adjs.  derived  from  proper 
names,  285.  </.  2 
Comparison :  defined,  153;  regu- 
lar, 154-157;  irregular,  158- 
159;  defect,  160;  adjs.  not 
compared,  161 ;  adjs.  compared 
w.  magis  and  maxime,  1 62 
Syntax:  adjs.  w.  gen.  of  the  whole, 
342  ;  adjs.  of  plenty  or  want  w. 
gen.,  350  ;  w.  abl.,  440,  469.  d\ 
adjs.  of  similarity  or  connection 
w.  gen.,  351,  398.  b\  adjs.  of 
action  or  feeling  w.  gen.,  357; 
adjs.  w.  dat.,  397  ;  adjs.  of  like- 
ness or  unlikeness  followed  by 
atque  (ac),  et,  -que,  400  ;  constr. 


w.  propior,  proximus,  401  ;  ad- 
verbial ace,  410,  411  ;  adjunct 
ace,   417.   a\    classification  of 
adjs., 496;  agreement,  497-502  ; 
w.  single  noun,  498  ;  w.  clause, 
500 ;   w.  two  or  more  nouns, 
502  ;  adjs.  used  as  nouns,  503- 
506;    as   advs.,   507;    w.   inf., 
841.  <2,  845  ;  w.  dat.  of  gerund, 
^TJ\    w.  supine,    882.   II.  b\ 
normal  position,  914,  916,  917; 
emphatic  position,  934,  d,  e 
Adjunct  accusative,  416,  417 
admoneo,  constr.  after,  361 
adulescens,  compar.,  160.  c 
Adverbial  clauses,  defined,   304.  c, 
709.  I;  purpose,  713,  714;  re- 
sult, 732-734;  temporal,  742- 
766;    causal,    J^j-jyi  ;    con- 
ditional, 772-803  ;  concessive, 
804-810;  proviso,  811 
Adverbs 

Forms:  numeral  advs.,  175;  advs. 
formed  from  adjs.,  270;  case 
forms  and  special  formations, 
271,  272;  compar.,  273,  274 
Syntax:  w.  gen.  of  the  whole, 
343  ;  w.  dat.,  399 ;  followed  by 
atque  (ac),  et,  -que,  400  ;  w.  abl. 
of  comparison,  446.  b ;  defined, 
583 ;  modifying  nouns,  584 ; 
used  as  adjs.,  585  ;  as  nouns, 
586;  equivalenttopron.w.prep., 
587;  special  advs.  and  their 
uses,  588-593  ;  neg.  advs.,  594- 
596 ;  normal  position,  91 2,  923 
Adversative  conjunctions,  61 1-616; 
defined,  611;  sed,  612;  vero, 
613  ;  autem,  614 ;  tamen,  61 5  ; 
at,  616 


INDEX 


369 


adversus  or  adversum,  276 

Advising,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.,  720. 1 

ae,  diphthong,  5  ;  sound,  1 5  ;  weak- 
ened to  i,  44.  </;  loc.  ending, 
80.^ 

aedgs,  sing,  and  plur.,  133 

AengSs,  decl.,  81 

aequor,  decl.,  97 

aes.  use  of  plur.,  1 26.  b 

aetas,  decl.,  107 

aethSr,  ace.  of,  1 1 1 .  ^ 

Affirmation,  expressed  by  two  neg^., 
595  ;  nonne  expecting  affirma- 
tive answer,  623.  b\  ways  of 
saying  yes^  629.  a 

Age,  how  expressed,  422.  a 

Agent,  dat  of,  w.  gerundive  and 
past  part.,  392 ;  w.  other  forms, 
id.  a ;  abl.  of,  453  ;  things  and 
animals  as  agent,  454;  agent 
regarded  as  means,  455 

ager,  decl.,  85 

aggredior,  see  adgredior 

Agnomen,  134.  </ 

Agreement 

Noun,  pred.,  306-308;  appositive, 

3'2 
Adjective,  general  rule,  497;   w. 
single  noun,  498;  w.  clause  or 
inf.,  500;    constr.  according  to 
sense,   501  ;     w.   two  or  more 
nouns,  502 
Verb,    631-638;    agreement    w. 
subj.,  631  ;    w.  pred.  noun  or 
appositive,  632 ;  constr.  accord- 
ing to  sense,  633 ;  w.  two  or 
more  subjs.,  634,  635  ;  w.  subjs. 
of  different  persons,  636;  w. 
rel.  pron.,  637 
Participle,  631.  </,  638 


-4i  for  -ae  in  gen.,  80.  b 

aiO,  conj.,  265.  a ;  ain  for  aisne, 
aibam  for  aiibam,  id.  2 ;  ait  as 
perf.,  id.  3 

-al  and  -ar,  neuters  in,  103,  104 

alacer,  compar.,  1 60.  c 

aliSnus,  for  poss.  gen.  of  alius,  1 43. 
b,  578.  b\  constr.  w.,  398.  t* 

aliquid,  as  ace.  of  degree,  426.  N.  1 

aliquis  (-qui),  decl.,  200.  b ;  mean- 
ing, 571 

aliquot,  indecl.  adj.,  152 

-alis,  -dris,  adj.  suffixes,  28$.  t/ 

alius,  decl.,  143;  meaning,  578; 
alienus  used  for  gen.,  578.^; 
alius  .  .  .  alius,  579;  alius  w. 
another  case  of  alius,  580; 
advs.  alias,  alibi,  etc.,  id.  N. 

Alphabet,  2 ;  i  and  u  as  vowels 
and  consonants,  id.  b;  Greek 
letters,  id.  c ;  vowels,  4 ;  diph- 
thongs, 5;   consonants,  6-10 

alter,  decl.,  143;  meaning,  578;  for 
secundus,  id.<z;  alter  ...  alter, 

579 

Alternative   questions,    627,  628 
annon,  nccne,  <?/- //<?/,  62  7.  tf ,  8 1 7 
first  member  omitted,  627.  b 
distinguished  from  single  ques- 
tions, 628 ;  answers,   630 ;  in- 
direct, 817 

Although,  conjunctions  meaning, 
805 

alvus.  gender,  86.  c 

am-,  amb-,  inseparable  prefix,  294.  b 

amissO,  fut.  perf.,  230.  c.  N.  2 

ambiG,  conj.,  259.  c 

imSns,  abl.  sing,  in  -!,  148.  u 

amO,  conj.,  242 

ampliua,  without  quam,  450 


370 


INDEX 


an,  annon,  necne,  in  alternative 
questions,  627 

Anacoluthon,  950.  ^ 

Anapaest,  975 

Anaphora,  939 

anceps,  abl.  sing,  in  -i,  148.  a 

Anchises,  decl.,  81 

Androgeos,  decl.,  89 

Andromache,  decl.,  8r 

animal,  decl.,  104 

Animals,  gender  of  names  of,  67.  c ; 
regarded  as  agent,  454 

animi,  loc,  488 

Annalistic  present,  65 1 

annon,  necne,  omot,  627.  a 

Answers  to  questions,  629,  630 

ante,  276;  used  as  prefix,  294.  «; 
in  comps.  w.  dat.,  382 ;  w.  abl. 
of  measure  of  difference,  477 

ante  diem,  constr.,  \o\o.  b,c 

Antecedent  of  relative,  551-560 

Antepenult,  defined,  24 

antequam  and  priusquam,  757-761 

Anticipation,  subjv.  of,  759-  N.  3 

Antithesis,  940 

-anus,  adj.  suffix,  285.^ 

Apodosis,  see  Conclusion 

Aposiopesis,  941 

Application,  gen.  of,  356 

Appointing,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  41 7 

Appositive,  defined,  311;  agree- 
ment, 312;  partitive  apposition, 
id.  b\  app.  w.  loc,  313;  cl.  as 
app.,  314;  app.  equivalent  to 
rel.  cl.,  315;  gen.  instead  of 
app.,  335  ;  inf.  used  as  app.,  835 

Appositive  adjective,  defined,  496,  b 

Appositive  clauses,  of  purpose,  724; 
of  result,  741  ;  w.  quod  and 
indie,  823 


aptus,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  877 
apud,  276 

-ar,  neut.  ending,  decl.  Ill,  103,  116 
arbor  or  arbos,  96.  d 
arctus,  gender,  86.  b 
arcus,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  iii.c 
-aris,  adj.  suffix,  285.^ 
-arium,  noun  suffix,  282.  b 
-arius,  noun  suffix,  282.  c ;  adj.  suf- 
fix, i%i.d 
Arrangement  of  words,  see  Order 

of  words 
Arsis  and  thesis,  979 
as,  final,  quantity,  964 
-Ss,  in  ace.  plur.  of  Greek  nouns,  \\\.e 
-as,  old  gen.  ending,  80.  a ;  Greek 

nom.  ending,  8  r ,  112.^;  gender 

of  nouns  in,  115 
Asking,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  413 ; 

w.  abl.,  414 ;  w.  subjv.  cl,  720. 1 
Aspirates  ch,  ph,  th,  1 7 
Assertions  of  fact,  in  indie,  642 
Assimilation  of  consonants,  51-54; 

in  prefixes,  53.  N. 
Asyndeton,  619,  942 
at,  use,  616 
Athematic  verbs,  251 
Atlas,  decl.,  112.^ 
atque  (ac),  602 ;  w.  adjs.  of  likeness, 

etc.,  id.  a ;  atque  . . .  atque,  604 
atrox,  decl.,  148 
Attendant  circumstance,  abl.  of,  457 ; 

expressed  by  abl.  abs.,  484.  e 
Attraction,  of  case  of  rel.,  554;  of 

case  of  antecedent,  id.  N. 
Attraction,  subjv.  by,  907-909 
Attributive  adjective,  defined,  496. 

a ;  agreement  w.  two  nouns,  in 

number,  502.  \.b\  in  gender, 

id.  2.  a 


INDEX 


37' 


-itus,  noun  suffix,  282.  e 

au,  diphthong,  5  ;  sound,  1 5 ;  weak- 
ened to  fl,  44,  e 

audicter,  compar.,  273 

audeO,  semi-deponent,  248 

audio,  conj.,  245  ;  w.  pres.  part.,  864 

aula,  old  gen.  of,  80.  b 

aureus,  not  compared,  161.  <z 

auris,  decl.,  107.  <? 

ausim,  ausis,  etc.,  perf.  subjv., 
234.  ^.  N.  I,  248.  ftn. 

aut,  use,  607 ;  aut  .  .  .  aiit,  610 

autem,  use,  614;  position,  924 

auxilior,  dat.  w.,  376 

auxilium,  auxilia,  1 33 

av6,  forms,  265.  d 

avis,  decl.,  102.// 

-fix,  verbal  adj.  suffix,  287.^;  adjs. 
in,  w.  gen.,  357 

-ba-,  tense  sign,  229.  b 
balneum,  plur.  balneae,  132 
Base,  defined,  63;  of  nouns,  75.  a 
basis,  decl.,  112 

Beginning,  vbs.  of,  w.  complemen- 
tary inf.,  837 
belli,  loc.,  488 
bene,  compar.,  274 
benefaci5,  w.  dat.,  378 
-ber.  noun  suffix,  284.  c.  i 
-bi-,  tense  sign,  229.  r 
-bills,  verbal  adj.  suffix,  287.  d 
Birth  or  origin,  nouns  of,  derivation, 
282.  g ;  participles  of,  w.  abl., 

45» 
bonus,  decl.,  140;  compar.,  158 
bCs.  decl..  109 
-bra.  noun  suffix,  284.  c.  i 
Bringing  about,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv., 

737.  738 


-brum,  noun  suffix,  284.^ 
bs  and  bt,  sound,  16 
-bula,  -bulum,  noun  suffixes,  284.  ^,  t 
-bundus.  adj.  suffix,  287.  a 
Buying,  vbs.  of,  w.  gen.,  341. «; 
\v.  abl.,  470 

C,  for  g  in  early  use  and  as  abbrevi- 
ation, 2.  a  ;  sound,  16 ;  quantity 
of  final  syllables  in,  958 

Cadences,  favorite,  937 

Caesura,  986;  position  of  caesural 
pause  in  dactylic  hexameter, 
996- 1 000 

Calendar,  Roman,  1 006-1 01 2 

Calends  (Kalendae),  loio 

Calling,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  417 

calx,  decl.,  p.  46 

Can,  expressed  by  potential  subjv., 
684.  N. 

canis,  decl.,  107.^ 

capiO,  conj.,  246 

capitis,  w.  vbs.  of  condemning,  337 

capsO,  fut.  perf.,  230.  <:.  N.  2 

caput,  decl.,  94 

Capys,  decl.,  1 12 

carbasus,  gender,  86.^;  plur.  car- 
basa,  132 

career,  carcerCs,  1 33 

Cardinal  numbers,  164;  decl.,  166; 
use  of  et,  168,  169;  replaced 
by  distributives,  iy^.f;  w.  ex 
instead  of  partitive  gen.,  344 

cfirC,  compar.,  273 

carO,  decl.,  109 

Case,  defined,  73 ;  names  of  cases, 
74;  quantity  of  final  vowels 
in  case  forms,  76.  /;  nouns 
defect  in  case  forms.  1 28 ; 
cases  w.  preps.,  276-278 ;  case 


372 


INDEX 


constructions,  305  ff.;  agreement 
in,  306,  312;  nom.,  316-320 
voc,  321-323  ;  gen.,  324-366 
dat.  367-401  ;  ace,  402-438 
abl.,  439-495 ;  case  of  rel.  pron., 
552 

castrum,  castra,  133 

Catalectic  and  acatalectic  verse,  985 

causa,  w.  gen.,  331,  463  ;  w.  gen.  of 
gerund,  875 

Causal  clauses,  replaced  by  abl. 
abs.,  484.  b ;  w.  qui  and  subjv., 
730.  I  ;  w.  cum  and  subjv., 
754 ;  w.  quod,  quia,  and  indie. 
or  subjv.,  768 ;  w.  quoniam, 
quand5.  and  indie,  769 ;  w.  non 
quod,  non  quia,  etc.,  and  subjv., 
770;  and  indie,  id.  b\  non 
quin  for  non  quod  non,  id.  a ; 
causal  cl.  replaced  by  a  part., 
861./^ 

Causal  conjunctions,  617 

Cause,  rel.  cl.  of,  730. 1 

Cause  or  reason,  abl.  of,  462 ;  ex- 
pressed by  ob  or  propter  w. 
ace,  464 ;  preventing  cause 
expressed  by  prae  w.  abl.,  465 

cave,  cave  ne,  in  prohibitions,  676.  b 

-ce,  enclitic,  39,  \Z%.a 

Ceasing,  vbs.  of,  w.  complementary 
inf.,  837 

cede,  forms,  '265.  d 

cedo,  dat.  w.,  376 

celer,  decl.,  146.  <^ 

celo,  w.  two  aces.,  413 

censeo,  constr.  after,  720.  I 

ceteri,  use,  581 

oh,  sound,  1 7 

Characteristic  or  description,  subjv. 
of,  726-730  ;  expressing  cause. 


730.  I ;  expressing  concession, 
id.  II 

Charge  and  penalty,  gen. of,  336,  337 

Chiasmus,  934./" 

Choosing,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  417 

circa,  use,  276 

circiter,  use,  276 

circum,  use,  276 ;  as  prefix,  294.  a  ; 
incomps.  w.dat.,382;  incomps. 
w.  ace,  406.  b 

circumdo,  double  constr.  w.,  374 

Circumstance,  attendant,  abl.  of, 
457;  expressed  by  abl.  abs., 
484.^ 

circumsto,  constr.  after,  382.  a 

cis,  citra,  use,  276 

citerior,  compar.,  160.^ 

Cities,  see  Towns 

civis,  decl.,  \oi.d 

civitas,  decl.,  106.  d 

classis,  decl.,  102.  d 

Clauses,  defined,  kinds  of,  299,  300, 
303,  304;  used  as  subj.,  316. 
a ;  replaced  by  abl.  abs.,  484 ; 
subord.,  syntax  of,  692  ff.;  pur- 
pose, 712;  description,  726; 
result,  73 1  ;  time,  743  ;  cause, 
767;  condition,  772  ff.;  com- 
parison, 803  ;  concession,  805  ; 
proviso,  811;  ind.  quests.,  812; 
fact  w.  quod,  821  ;  inf.,  832  ff. ; 
ind.  disc,  886 

cliens,  decl.,  107 

Closed  syllables,  23 

coepi,  conj.,  263  ;  pass.  w.  pass,  inf., 
id.  a  ;  incipio  used  for  pres.,  id. 

Cognate  accusative,  408 ;  w.  vbs.  of 
taste  and  smell,  409 ;  w.  neut. 
prons.  and  adjs.,  410;  in  poetry, 
411 


INDEX 


373 


Cognomen.  134. . 
cognOvi.  in  pres.  sense,  660 
Collective  noun  w.  sing,  or  plur.  vb., 

633 

coUis,  decl.,  102.  </ 

colus,  gender,  86.  c 

com-  (con-),  prefix,  294.  a  ;  in  comps. 
w.  dat.,  382 

comedo,  past  part,  of,  257.  ^ 

comitium.  comitia,  133 

Commanding,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.,  720. 
I  ;  w.  inf.,  id.  a 

Commands,  expressed  by  subjv., 
674:  by  im v.,  689,  690 ;  inind. 
disc,  887.  Ill 

Common  gender,  66.  a 

Common  syllables,  969 

commonefaciO,  w.  ace.  and  gen.,  361 

commoneO,  w.  ace.  and  gen.,  361 

communis,  w.  gen.,  35 1 ;  w.  dat.,  397 

commutO,  constr.  after,  472 

Comparative  suffix,  of  adjs.,  154;  of 
advs.,  273 

Comparatives,  decl.,  1 50 ;  stem,  id. 
N.;  meaning  of,  154.  N.;  w. 
abl.  of  comparison,  446-449; 
quam  w.  comparatives,  446.  a\ 
two  comparatives,  508 ;  com- 
paratives w.  quam  ut,  quam 
qui,  id.  a 

Comparison,  clauses  of,  803 

Comparisonof  adjs.,  153-162;  reg- 
ular, I  54 ;  adjs.  in  -«r,  155;  six 
adjs.  in  -lis,  156;  comps.  of 
-dicus,  -ficus,  -volus,  157;  irreg- 
ular, 158,  159;  defect.,  160, 
161;  w.  magis  and  maxime,  1 62 

Comparison  of  advs,,  273  ;  w.  magis 
and  maxime,  id.  a ;  irregular 
and  defect.,  274 


Comparison  of  parts.,  1 54.  a 

Complementary  infinitive,  836;  vbs. 
w.,  837:  pred.  noun  or  adj. 
after,  838 ;  w.  reflexive  pron.  as 
subj.,  id.  a 

complex),  constr.  after,  349,  469.  d. 

Complex  sentence,  300 

compiarSs,  decl.,  151.  <z 

compos,  decl.,  148.  b 

Compound  sentence,  299 

Compound  words,  291  ;  formation 
of,  292,  293 

Compounds,  derived  from  phrases, 
293  ;  w.  dat.,  382 

con-,  see  com- 

con-  (com-),  comps.  of,  w.  dat,  382 

Conative  past  descriptive,  653 

Conative  present,  649 

concSdO,  w.  fut  pass,  part  express- 
ing purpose,  869 

Concessive  clauses,  defined,  804; 
replaced  by  abl.  abs.,  484.^; 
volitive  subjv.,  671,  677;  qui 
concessive,  730.  II;  cum  con- 
cessive, 755 ;  quamquam,  etsi, 
tametsi  {although),  806;  etsi, 
tametsi,  etiam  si  (even  if),  808 ; 
quamvis,  ut,  809;  licet,  810; 
replaced  by  part.,  86i.y 

Concessive  conjunctions,  805 

Conclusion,  see  Conditional  sen- 
tences 

concors,  decl.,  148.^1 

Condemning,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after, 
336,  337 

Conditional  clauses,  defined,  772; 
replaced  by  abl.  abs.,  484.*/: 
by  part,  861.^ 

Conditional  clauses  of  comparison, 
803 


374 


INDEX 


Conditional  conjunctions,  77S-777i 
800.  a 

Conditional  sentences,  defined,  773  ; 
development  of,  p.  295,  ftn.  i  ; 
condition  and  conclusion,  774; 
si  and  its  compounds,  use, 
77^-777  \  classification  of  con- 
ditions, 77^-7^3  '  present  con- 
ditions, non-committal,  785 ; 
present  conditions,  contrary  to 
fact,  786;  future  conditions, 
more  definite,  788  ;  future  con- 
ditions, less  definite,  789 ;  past 
conditions,  non-committal,  792; 
past  conditions,  contrary  to  fact, 
793 ;  synopsis  of  conditional 
sentences,  794 ;  peculiar  future 
conditions,  795,  796;  peculiar 
conditions  contrary  to  fact,  797- 
799;  general  conditions,  7 7 8. (^,<r, 
800  ;  temporal  (cum,  ubi,  or  ut 
meaning  whenever),  746,  752, 
800.  a ;  conditional  relative 
clauses,  801  ;  substitutes  for 
regular  conditions,  and  implied 
conditions,  484.  d,  802,  861.  e; 
clauses  of  comparison  (conclu- 
sion omitted),  803  ;  concessive 
clauses  w.  etsi,  etc.,  808;  pro- 
viso, 811 

Conditional  sentences  in  indirect  dis- 
course, 898-904;  conclusions 
that  are  interrogative  or  im- 
perative, 899;  non-committal 
conditions,  900.  I ;  future  con- 
ditions, id.  II ;  conditions  con- 
trary to  fact,  id.  Ill,  903  ;  more 
and  less  definite  future  condi- 
tions not  distinguishable,  902 ; 
sequence  of  tenses,  904 


Conditions  contrary  to  fact,  tense 
sequence  in,  704,  904 ;  in  ind. 
disc,  900.  Ill 

confido,  w.  dat.,  376;  w.  abl.,  id. 
N.  2 

Conjugation,  defined,  60 ;  conj.  of 
vbs.,  203-267 ;  voice,  204 ; 
mood,  20  5  ;  tense,  206 ;  per- 
son, 207  ;  number,  208  ;  tens6 
systems,  209 ;  distinguishing 
vowels,  210;  principal  parts, 
212-214;  pers.  endings,  215- 
218;  formation  of  vb.  stems, 
219-226;  formation  of  moods 
and  tenses,  227-235 ;  forma- 
tion of  non-modal  vb.  forms, 
236-240;  conj.  of  sum,  241; 
conj.  of  regular  vbs.,  242-246; 
conj.  of  deponents,  247  ;  semi- 
deponents,  248 ;  periphrastic 
conjs.,  249,  250  ;  irregular  vbs., 
251-261;  defectives,  262-265; 
impersonals,  266;  list  of  vbs., 
267 

Conjunctions,  origin  and  classifica- 
tion, 279;  syntax  of  conjunc- 
tions, 597-619;  defined  and 
classified,  597,  598 ;  copulative, 
599-605;  disjunctive,  606-610; 
adversative,  6 1 1  -6 1 6 ;  causal, 
617;  inferential,  618;  asyndeton, 
619 ;  position,  924 

Connectives,  relatives  used  as,  564 

Conor,  w.  inf.,  720.  I.  c 

Consequence  or  result,  see  Result 
clauses 

Consonant  stems,  of  nouns,  decl.  Ill, 
90-99;  of  adjs.,  145,  148,  150 

Consonants,  defined  and  classified, 
6-10;    pronunciation,    16-20; 


INDEX 


375 


changes  in,  48-55  ;  rhotadsm, 
49;  assimilation,  51-54;  drop- 
ping of,  55 

Construction  according  to  sense,  see 
Syncsis 

Constructions  of  cases,  see  under 
Ablative,  etc. 

cOnsuSvi,  use,  660 

consul,  dccl.,  97 

Contending,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat,  381 

contentus,  w.  abl.,  469.  c 

Continued  action,  tenses  of,  646 

contrfi.  use,  276 

Contraction,  of  vowels,  46 ;  quantity 
of  resulting  vowel,  34.  a,  953. 
b  \  contraction  of  syllables,  988 

contrarius,  w.  gen.,  351 ;    w.  dat., 

397 
Contrary  to  fact,  conditions,  sequence 

of  tenses  in,  704 ;  present,  786 ; 

past,  793  ;  in  ind.  disc.,  900.  Ill 
conveniO,  constr.  after,  382.  a 
convocO,  constr.  after,  382.  a  . 
Coordinating  conjunctions,   279.  «, 

598  (see  Conjunctions) 
c6pia,  cOpiae,  133 
Copula,  305.  a  ;  position  of,  927 
Copulative  conjunctions,  599-605 ; 

et,  600 ;  -que,  60 1  ;  atque,  ac, 

602  ;  and  not,  603  ;  repeated, 

604 ;     in    enumerations,    605 ; 

omitted,  619 
Copulative  verbs,  305. « 
cor.  dccl..  p.  46 
cOram.  277 
Correlatives,  604,  610;  qu6  .  .  .  cd, 

rendered  the  .  .  .  t/ig,  476 
Countries,  names  of,  gender,  67.  d ; 

as  end  of  motion,  428, 429. 434; 

as  place  whence,  44 1 ,  444 


crSdO,  w.  dat,  376;  w.  dat.  and  ace, 

380 
Crime  or  charge,  gen.  of,  336 
-crum,  noun  suffix,  284.  c 
crux,  decl.,  p.  46 
CU  for  earlier  quo,  1 2.  d 
-culum,  noun  suffix,  284.  c 
-cuius,  diminutive  suffix,  282 
cum  (conjunction),  temporal,   749- 
753;  causal,  754;   concessive, 
755  ;  definitive,  750 ;  uwtrsum^ 
751;  iterative  («'//^««'^r),  752, 
800.  tf;  descriptive,  753;  cum 
.  .  .  turn,  755.^/:  cum  clause 
instead  of  a  part.,  851,  852 
cum  (prep.),  as   enclitic  w.  prons., 
180.  r,    183. /7,    193.  </,    197.^, 
277.  d,    925;    use,    277;    in 
comps.,   see   com-;   w.  abl.  of 
accompaniment,  456 ;  w.  words 
of  contention,  id.  N. ;   w.  abl. 
of  manner,  459 
cum  primum  in  temporal  clauses, 

745.  748 
-cundus,  verbal  adj.  sufiix,  287.  a 
cupiS,  constr.  after,  720.  I.  b,  839.  b 
cQrO,  w.  fut.  pass.  part,  expressing 

purpose,  869 
-cus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  </ 

d,  changed  to  s,  48 ;  assimilated,  53; 
dropped,  55;  old  abl.  ending 
of  nouns,  i  2 1 ./;  of  pers.  prons., 
180.^/,  183.^;  ad  vs.  originally 
in  -ed,  270.  a.  N. 

Dactyl,  975 ;  in  dactylic  verse, 
id.  a 

Dactylic  hexameter,  how  constituted, 
995  ;  spondaic,  id.  a  ;  cxsural 
pause,    996-1000;    masculine 


376 


INDEX 


and  feminine  caesura,  999.  a ; 

example  of  dactylic  hexameter, 

1002 
Dactylic  pentameter,  1003;  in  elegiac 

distich,  1004 
dapis,  decl.,  p.  46 
Dates,  how  expressed,  10 10,  1012; 

equivalent  in  English  of  Latin 

dates,  1 01 1 
Dative  case,  defined,  74 

Forms :  in  -abus  in  decl.  I,  80.  ^ ; 
in  -ubus  in  decl.  IV,  121.  ^; 
in  -e  instead  of  -li  in  decl.  V, 
12$.  b\  in  -i  in  adjs.,  nuUus, 
etc.,  143 
Syntax,  367-401  :  original  use, 
367 ;  classification,  369 

Indirect  object,  370-384;  w. 
act.  of  trans,  vbs.  together  w. 
dir.  obj.,  371,  380;  w.  pass, 
of  trans,  vbs.,  372;  w.  vbs. 
of  motion,  373  ;  w.  dono,  cir- 
cumd5,  exuo,  374;  in  poetry 
denoting  direction  of  motion, 
375;  w.  intrans.  vbs.,  credo, 
impero,  etc.,  376 ;  vbs.  of  sim- 
ilar meaning  w.  ace,  id.  ^; 
dat.  w.  phrases,  audiens  esse, 
etc.,  377 ;  w.  libet,  licet,  and 
comps.  of  satis,  bene,  male, 
378 ;  w.  pass,  of  intrans.  vbs., 
379 ;  w.  vbs.  of  contending, 
381  ;  w.  vbs.  compounded  w. 
preps.,  382;  vbs.  similarly 
compounded  w.  ace,  id.  a; 
dat.  w.  verbal  nouns,  insidiae, 
obtemperatio,  etc.,  383 ;  w, 
obvius  and  obviam,  384 

Dative  of  reference,  385-389 ; 
used  idiomatically,   386;  of 


person  judging,  387  ;  ethical 
dative,  388  ;  w.  comps.  of  ab, 
de,  ex,  389 
Possession,  390 
Apparent   agent,    392 ;  w.  im- 

pers.  gerundive,  394 
Purpose,  395 
With    adjectives,    397;    other 

constructions,  398 
With  adverbs  of  likeness,  399 
Gerund  and  gerundive,  877 

de,  use,  277;  as  prefix,  294.^;  w. 
abl.  to  denote  the  charge,  336.  a ; 
w.  abl.  instead  of  partitive  gen., 
344 ;  w.  vbs.  of  reminding,  362  ; 
in  comp.  w.  vbs.  w.  dat.,  382, 
389 ;  w.  abl.  of  separation,  440. 
a\  w.  abl.  of  place  whence,  441 ; 
w.  abl.  of  material,  452  ;  w.  abl. 
of  accordance,  458  ;  w.  abl.  of 
cause,  462 ;  in  expressions  of 
time,  495  ;  w.  abl.  of  gerund 
or  gerundive,  879 

dea,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  80.  e 

debeo,  in  conclusion  of  conditions 
contrary  to  fact,  797.  a  ;  in  past 
tense  w.  pres.  inf.,  829;  w. 
perf.  inf.,  id.  N. 

decet,  w.  ace,  407  ;  in  conclusion  of 
conditions  contrary  to  fact, 
797.  a 

Deciding,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.  cl.,  720. 1 

Declarative  sentence,  296.  i  ;  in  ind. 
disc,  d>?>7. 1 

Declension,  defined,  60 ;  distinguish- 
ing vowels,  75;  base,  75. «; 
general  rules,  ^6 

Declension  of  adjectives,  138 ;  decls. 
I-II,  139-143;  decl.  Ill,  144- 
148;  of  comparatives,  150 


INDEX 


377 


Declension  of  nouns,  73,  74 ;  decl. 
I,  77-81  ;  decl.  II,  82-89;  decl. 
Ill,  90-1 16;  decl.  IV,  1 17-121 ; 
decl.  V,  122-125 

Declension  of  present  participles,  149 

Defective  comparison,  160 

Defective  nouns,  of  decl.  IV',  121.^; 
of  decl.  V,  1 25.  a  ;  used  in  sing, 
only,  126;  used  in  plur.  only, 
1 27  ;  used  in  certain  cases  only, 
128 

Defective  verbs,  262-265 

Definite  perfect,  658.  I;  sequence 
after,  699 

Definitive  cum,  750 

dgfit.  261.  t 

Degree  of  an  action  or  quality  ex- 
pressed by  ace,  426 

Degrees  of  comparison,  153 

deinde,  in  enumerations,  591.  a 

dglectO,  w.  ace,  376.  a 

Deliberative  subjunctive,  678 ;  in 
ind.  quests.,  816;  in  ind.  disc., 
887.  II.  rf 

D6I0S.  decl.,  89 

Demonstrative  pronouns  and  adjec- 
tives, defined,  185 
Forms:  declension,  188- 191 
Syntax:  used  as  pers.  pron.  of 
third  person,  531  ;  agreement, 
532;  hie,  533,  534;  i«te,  535, 
536;  ille,  537-539;  is.  540- 
542 :  omission  of  that  in  that  of, 
544:  idem,  545-547;  normal 
position,  91 8 ;  emphatic  position, 

934-^ 
dSmum,  position,  923 
denique,  in  enumerations,   591.  a\ 

position,  923 
Denominative  verbs,  289 


Dentals,  7.  b 

Dependent  clauses,  kinds,  709 ;  indie. 

or  subjv.  in,  710  ff. 
Deponent   verbs,    defined,   204.  a ; 

conjugated,    247 ;    act.    forms, 

id. ;  forms  pass,  in  meaning,  id. ; 

semi-deponents,  248 
Deprivation,  vbs.  of,  abl.  w.,  440 
Derivation,  of  nouns,  282-284;  of 

adjectives,  285-288 ;  of  verbs, 

289,  290 
Description  or  characteristic,  subjv.  • 

of,  726-730;  cum  clauses  of, 

753-755 
Description  or  quality,  gen.  of,  338 ; 

abl.  of,  466 
Descriptive,  past,  652-654 
Descriptive  adj.  instead  of  objective 

gen.,  355 
Descriptive  cum,  753 
Desiderative  verbs  (in  -uri5),  290.  d 
Desire,  adjs.  of,  w.gen.,  357 
deterior,  compar.,  1 60.  a 
deus.  decl.,  88.  g 

dextrd,  abl.  without  prep.,  485.  a 
di-,  see  dis- 
Diaeresis,  987 
Diastole.  990 
die,  prcs.  imv,,  235.  <r 
-dicus,  adjs.  in,  compar.  of,  157 
Dido,  decl.,  1 1 2 
dies,  decl.,  1 23 ;  gender,  1 24 ;  irreg. 

forms,  125.^ 
Difference,  measure  of,  475 
difficilis,  compar.,   156;  w.  supine, 

882.  II.  ^ 
diffidC,  dat.  w.,  376 
dignor,  w.  abl.,  479.  N. 
dignus.  w.  abl.,  479;  w.  rel.  cl  of 

purpose,  717 


378 


INDEX 


Diminutive  endings,  of  nouns,  282. 
a  ;  of  adjs.,  286 ;  of  vbs.,  290.  c 

din-,  stems  in,  98.  b 

Diphthongs,  5  ;  sounds,  1 5  ;  quan- 
tity, 27,  954;  weakening  of, 
44.  d,  e 

Direct  discourse,  883 

Direct  object,  404-407;  w.  vbs.  of 
feeling,  406.  a ;  w.  vbs.  of 
motion  (comps.  of  ad,  circum, 
etc.),  id.  b ;  w.  intrans.  vbs.,  id.  c ; 
w.  pass,  used  as  Greek  middle, 
id.  d\  w.  gerund,  880.  a 

Direct  question,  62 1 .  rt; 

Direct  quotation  w.  inquam,  265.  b 

Direct  reflexive,  5 1 9 

dis-  (di-),  inseparable  prefix,  294.  b 

Disjunctive  conjunctions,  606-610 ; 
defined,  606;  aut,  607;  vel, 
608  ;  siye  or  seu,  609 ;  correla- 
tive use,  610 

dispar,  w.gen.,  351  ;  w.  dat.,  397 

displiceo,  w.  dat.,  376 

Disproportion,  how  expressed,  508,^ 

dissimilis,  similis,  compar.,  156; 
w.  gen.,  351  ;  w.  dat.,  397, 
398.^ 

Distributive  numerals,  1 64 ;  decl., 
167;  use,  173 

Distributive  pronouns,  576,  ^-j'j 

diu,  compar.,  274 

dives,  decl.,  148 

divom,  gen.  plur.,  88.  d 

do,  conj.,  258 ;  w.  fut.  pass.  part, 
expressing  purpose,  869 

doceo,  constr.  after,  413,  415 

domi,  loc,  488 ;  w.  poss.  adj.  or 
gen.,  489 

domus,  gender,  120:  decl.,  121.^; 
omission  of  prep.  w.  ace.  and 


abl.,  430,  442;  w.  prep,  when 
meaning  house,  433,  442.  N. 
donee,  as  long  as,  762  ;  u?itil,  764, 

765 

dono,  double  constr.  w.,  374 

Doubled  consonants,  20 

Doubt,  vbs.  of,  w.  quin  and  subjv., 
720.  IV 

Doubtful  syllable  in  verse,  984 

Dropping  of  vowels,  47 ;  of  conso- 
nants, 55 

dubito,  w.  neg.  and  quin,  720.  IV; 
w.  ind.  quest.,  id.  N. ;  w.  inf.  or 
quin,  id. 

due,  pres.  imv.,  235.^ 

dum,  while,^.  historical  pres.,  648.  a, 
763  ;  as  long  as,  w.  indie,  762  ; 
mitil,  w.  indie,  to  denote  a  fact, 
764;  w.  subjv.  to  denote  pur- 
pose or  expectation,  765  ;  pro- 
vided, 811;  dum  clause  for  pres. 
pass,  part.,  851 

^yxvaxsiQ^Q,  provided,  w.  subjv.,  811 

duo,  decl.,  166.  b 

Duration,  ace.  of,  420,  422,  424; 
abl.  of,  423 

-dus,  adj.  suffix,  287.  c 

6,  sound,  14;  changed  to  i,  44.  c, 
93.  c ;  dropped,  47  a. ;  changed 
to  0  by  ablaut,  57;  in  voc.  of 
decl.  II,  84.^;  in  abl.  of  decl. 
Ill,  94;  in  abl.  of  adjs.  of  one 
or  two  terminations,  147.  N., 
148;  stem  vowel,  conj.  Ill,  210, 
221,  229.  a.  2,  289  ;  final,  quan- 
tity of,  960 

e,  sound,  1 4 ;  for  early  oe,  45  ;  end- 
ing of  fem.  Greek  nouns,  decl.  I, 
81  ;    in  voc.  of  Greek  nouns, 


INDEX 


379 


decl.  111,112;  stem  vowel,  decl. 
V,  122;  in  gen.  and  dat.  sing, 
of  decl.  V,  125.  b,  955.  b.  i  ; 
stem  vowel,  conj.  II,  210,  220. 
b,  289 ;  in  past  descript.  indie, 
229.  ^.  I,  2 ;  in  fut.  indie.,  229. 
c ;  in  pres.  subjv.,  233.  a ;  as 
adv.  ending,  270.  a 

g  (ex),  prep.,  use,  277.  b ;  in  comps., 
294.  a  ;  abl.  w.,  instead  of  parti- 
live  gen.,  344 ;  in  comps.  w. 
dat.,  389 ;  w.  abl.  of  separation, 
440.  a ;  w.  abl.  of  place  whence, 
441  ;  expressing  position,  445  ; 
w.  abl.  of  origin,  45 1 . «  ;  w.  abl. 
of  accordance,  458 ;  w.  abl.  of 
cause,  462 ;  w.  abl.  of  gerund, 
S79 

ecce  (eccum,  eccam,  etc.),  437 

ecquis,  indefinite,  200. /•;  interrog., 
568 

ecus,  early  form  for  equus,  1 2.  b 

ed6.  conj.,  257 

efficiO  ut,  737,  739 

egens.  decl.,  148 

egenus,  w.  gen.,  350 

ege5.  constr.  after,  349,  469.  d 

ego,  decl.,  180 

egomet,  1 80.  ^ 

ei,  diphthong,  5 ;  sound,  1 5 

-€is,  patronymic  ending,  282.^ 

Electra,  dec!.,  81 

Elegiac  distich,  1004,  1005 

Elision.  981  ;  before  est,  982 

Ellipsis,  950.  b 

ellum,  etc.,  437 

-ellus,  diminutive  ending,  282 

Emotion,  vbs.  of,  w.  inf.,  839.  e ;  w. 
ind.  disc,  or  quod  cl.,  id.  N. 

Emphasis,  how  secured,  934 


Enallage,  950.  c 

Enclitics,  defined,  39;  accent,  40; 

enclitic    cum,     180.  <•,    183.  a, 

i93'd,  197.4,  277. //,  925 
End  of  motion,  expressed  by  dat., 

373;  ace.  of,  428  ff. 
Endings,  see  Personal  endings 
English  dates  in  Latin,  10 12 
enim,  use,  617 ;  position,  id.  a,  924 
-Snsis,  adj.  suffix,  285.  r/ 
Enumeration,  591.  </,  605 
-€nu8.  adj.  suffix,  285.  d 
Envying,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  376 
e6,  conj.,  259;  pass,  of,  id.  a ;  ambio, 

id.  c ;   prdded,  id.  t/;    w.  supine 

in  -um  to  form  fut.  pass,  inf., 

882. 1.rf.N. 
eO  (pron.),  w.  qu5,  to  express  measure 

of  difference,  476 
Epicene  nouns,  67.  c 
Epiphora,  939.  N. 
Epistolary  tenses,  664 
Epizeuxis.  943 
epulum,  epulae,  132 
equidem,  592.  a.  N. 
-er,  nom.  ending,  decl.  II,  83,  85; 

decl.  Ill,  96.  a,  97;  gender  of 

nouns  in,  decl.  Ill,  114;  adjs. 

in,  141,  142,   146;  com  par.  of 

adjs.  in,  155 
ergi,  use,  276 
ergO,  use,  618 
-emus,  adj.  suffix,  288 
es,  final,  quantity,  964 
-is,  in  nom.  plur.  of  Greek  nouns, 

III,  (f;    gender  of  nouns  in, 

114 
-Ss,  Greek  nouns  in,  81,  112;  nom. 

ending,    decl.  V,    122;    noun 

suffix.  284.  b 


38o 


INDEX 


-ess5,  vb.  suffix,  290.  b.  I 

est,  w.  ut  cl.  as  subj.,  739;  w.  inf. 

as  subj.,  833;  united  w.  other 

words,  982 
-ester,  adj.  suffix,  285.  d 
et,  use,  600 ;  et .  .  ..  et,  604 ;  in  enu- 
merations, 605 
etenim,  use,  617 
Ethical  dative,  388 
etiam,  use,  588  ;  in  answers,  629,  a 
etiam  si,  eve7t  if,  808 
etsi,  although,  806 ;  even  if,  808 
-etum,  noun  suffix,  282.  b 
eu,  diphthong,  5  ;  sound,  1 5 
Euphony  and  rhythm,  937 
-eus,  decl.  of  Greek  names  in,  112 
-eus,  -aceus,  -nus,  -neus,  adj .  suffixes, 

285.^ 
evenit  ut,  739 ;  evenit  quod,  822 
Exclamation,  nom.  in,  3 19 ;  ace.  in, 

436  ;  w.  inf.,  843 
Exclamatory  questions,  w.  inf.,  843 ; 

w.  ut  and  subjv.,  id.  a 
Exclamatory  sentences,  296. 3;  nom. 

in,  3  T  9  ;  ace.  in,  436 ;  w.  inf.,  843 
Existence  expressed  by  sum,  927 
Expectation  or  anticipation,  subjv. 

of,  759.  N.  3,  765 
expers,  w.  gen.,  350 
Explanatory  genitive,  335 
Extent  of  space,  ace.  of,  420,  421 
exterus,  compar.,  1 59;  exteri,  id.  a 
extra,  use,  276 
extremus,  end  of  510 
exuo,  double  constr.  w.,  374 

fac,  pres.  imv.,  235.  c,  fac  ne,  in  pro- 
hibitions, 676.  b 
facies,  decl.,  125.  a 
facilis,  compar.,  156 


facio,  pass,  of,  261  ;  w.  abl.,  452.  b; 

w.  ut  and  obj.  cl.  of  result,  737  ; 

w.  pres.  part.,  864 
falsus,  compar.,  160.  b 
fames,  abl.  of,  107.  ^ 
fari,  conj.,  265.  r;  comps.,  id.  i 
fas,  indecl.,  128.  a\  w.  supine  in  -u, 

882.  II 
fauces,  decl.,  106.  d 
faveo,  w.  dat.,  376 
fax,  decl.,  p.  46 

faxim,  perf.  subjv.,  234.  a.  N.  i 
faxo,  fut.  perf.,  230.  c.  N.  2 
Fearing,  vbs.  of,  w.  ne,  ne  non,  or  ut 

and  subjv.,  720.  II;  w.  inf.,  id.  a 
febris,  decl.,  \o^.c 
Feeling,  nouns  of,  w.  gen.,  354;  adjs. 

of,  w.  gen.,  357;  impers.  vbs. 

of,  w.  gen.,  363  ;  vbs.  of,  w.  inf., 

a  cl.,  or  a  neut.  pron.  as  subj., 

364 ;  vbs.  of,  w.  ace,  406.  a 
Feet,  in  verse,  971-975 
Feminine  caesura,  999.  a 
Feminine  gender,  general  rule,  67.  b 
femur,  decl.,  130.  <: 
fer,  pres.  imv.,  235.  c 
-fer  and  -ger,  comps.  in,  85.  ^.  i ,  142.^ 
fere,  position,  923 
ferio,  conj.,  264 
fero,  conj.,  256 

Festivals,  plur.  names  of,  127.  b 
-ficus,  adjs.  in,  compar.  of,  157 
fido,    semi-deponent,   248 ;    w.  dat., 

376;  w.  abl.,  id.  N.  2 
Fifth  declension,  122-125;  gender, 

1 24  ;  peculiar  forms,  1 25 
filia,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  80.  e 
filius,  gen.  and  voc.  sing.,  88.  b,  c 
Filling,  words  of,  w.  gen.,  349,  350 ; 

w.  abl.,  469.  d 


INDEX 


381 


Final  clauses,  see  Purpose 
Final  syllables,  quantity,  956-965 
finis,  decl.,  102.  (1\  meaning  in  plur., 

133 

fi5,  conj.,  261  ;  in  comps.,  id.  <?,  b\ 
cdnfit,  defit,  id.  ^;  w.  abl.,  452. 
/' :  quantity  of  i  in,  955.  b.  3 

First  conjugation,  prin.  parts,  212; 
pres.  stem,  220.  a  ;  perf.  stem, 
223.  a,  c\  part,  stem,  225, 
226;  paradigms,  242  ;  vbs.  of, 
derivation,  289 

First  declension,  77-81  ;  peculiar 
forms,  80  ;  Greek  nouns,  81 

fit  ut,  739 ;  fit  quod,  822 

Fitness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  397,  a,  877 

flagite,  constr.  after,  413,  414 

flocci,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N. 

Following,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.  cl.,  739 

Foot,  in  verse,  see  Feet 

foras,  foris,  1 28.  c 

fore,  24  r .  <7 ;  fore  ut,  740,  83 1 

forem,  forSs,  etc.,  241.  a 

Forgetting,  vbs.  of, constr.  after,  358 

Formation  of  words,  281-294;  nouns 
from  nouns,  282;  from  adjs., 
283 ;  from  vbs.,  284 ;  adjs. 
from  nouns,  285 ;  from  adjs., 
286;  from  vbs.,  287;  from 
advs.,  288;  vbs.  from  nouns 
or  adjs.,  289;  from  vbs.,  290; 
comps.,  291-293;  prefixes,  294 

fors,  forte.  1 28.  c 

forsitan.  w.  subjv..  819 

fortuna.  fortunae.  133 

Fourth  conjugation,  pres.  stem, 
220,  c\  perf.  stem.  223.  a,  r,  d\ 
part,  stem,  225,  226 ;  prin.  parts 
and  paradigms,  245;  vbs.  of, 
derivation,  289,  290.^ 


Fourth  declension.  11 7-1 21;  gen- 
der, 118,  1 20 ;  peculiar  forms, 
121 

Fractions,  how  expressed,  1 74 

fraus,  dec!.,  106.  </ 

Freedom,  vbs.  or  adjs.  of,  w.  abl., 
440 

frSnum,  plur.  in  -i  or  -a,  132 

Frequentative  verbs,  290.  b 

fretus.  w.  abl.,  469.^ 

Fricatives,  8.  d 

friigi.  indecl.,  i  52 ;  compar.,  1 58 

frflgis,  decl.,  p.  46 

fruor,  w.  abl.,  469.  a ;  w.  ace,  id. 
N.  2  ;  in  gerund,  880.  c.  N. 

fuam.  fuSs,  etc.,  241.  r 

Fullness,  words  of,  w. gen.,  349,350; 
w.  abl.,  469.  d 

fungor,  w.  abl.,  469.  a ;  w.  ace,  id. 
N.  2  ;  in  gerund,  880.  c.  N. 

Future  conditions,  moredefinite,  788; 
less  definite,  789;  relatives  in, 
801  ;  in  ind.  disc.,  900.  II 

Future  indicative,  formation,  229.  c ; 
use,  655;  used  for  imv.,  656;  for 
English  pres.,  657;  how  sup- 
plied in  subjv.,  698.  a,  c\  how 
expressed  in  ind.  quest.,  815 

Future  infinitive,  formation,  237.  c, 
882.  I.  <7.  N. ;  expressed  by  fore 
or  futiirum  esse  ut,etc.,  740, 83 1 

Future  jxirticiple. formation,  240.  b,d\ 
of  deponents,  247;  lime  denoted, 
847.  c\  as  attrib.  adj.,  856;  form- 
ing periphrastic  conjs.,  859. 
860;  impers.  use,  860.  a,  b\ 
act.  expressing  purpose,  868 : 
pass.  w.  curd,  d5.  tridft.  etc.,  ex- 
pressing purpose.  869:  gerun- 
dive use,  870 


382 


INDEX 


Future  perfect,  formation,  230.  c ; 
use,  662  ;  rendered  by  English 
fut.  or  pres.,  663  ;  how  repre- 
sented in  subjv.,  698.  b^c\  in 
conditions,  790 ;  in  ind.  disc, 
887.  I. /5,  889. 

futurum  esse  (fore)  ut,  740,  831 ; 
futUrum  fuisse  ut,  900.  Ill 

g,  represented  by  c,  2.  a  ;    sound, 

16 
Games,  plur.  names  of,  127.  ^ 
gaudeo,  semiTdeponent,  248 ;  w.  inf., 
839,  e\  w.  ind.  disc,  or  quod 
cl.,  id.  N. 
Gender,  kinds,  64,  65  ;  natural,  66 ; 
common,  id.  a ;    grammatical, 
general  rules  for,  67-69 ;  com- 
mon (epicene),   67.  c\   foreign 
words,  69  ;  decl.  I,  78  ;  decl.  II, 
83,  86,  87;  decl.  Ill,  113-116; 
decl.  IV,  1 1 8,  1 20 ;  decl.  V,  1 24 
Syntax  :  agreement  in  gender  of 
appositives,  312.^;  of  adjs.  w. 
single  noun,  498  ;  w.  cl.  or  inf., 
500 ;   w.  two  or  more  nouns, 
502;  of  rel.  pron.,  552 
General  conditions, defined,  778. <^,^; 

use,  800  ;  relatives  in,  801 
Genitive  case,  defined,  74 

Forms :  terminations  in  sing,  of 
nouns,,  ys  5  g^^i.  in  -as  and-ai, 
decl.  I,  80.  «,  b\  in  -um  for 
-arum,  id.  d  ;in  -i  for  -ii,  decl. 
II,  88.  b ;  in  -um  for  -orum, 
id.  d\  in  -i  or  -os  in  Greek 
names,  decl.  Ill,  1 11.^,  112; 
in  -i,  -uis,  or  -uos  for  -us, 
decl.  IV,  12.1, a\m  -um  for 
-uum,  id.  b\  in  -e  or  -i  for  -ei. 


decl.  V,  125.  <^;  in  -ium  or 
-orum  in  neut.  names  of  fes- 
tivals, 1 30.  ^;  in  -ius  in  adjs., 

143 

Syntax:  how  translated,  325; 
subjective  and  objective,  326 
Possessive,  328  ;  gen.  of  person 
acting  or  feeling,  id.  N. ;  poss. 
gen.  in  pred.,  330  ;  w.  causa, 
gratia,  and  instar,  331  ;  de- 
pending on  omitted  noun, 
333  ;  how  to  translate  that 

of,  334 

Explanatory,  instead  of  an  ap- 
positive,  335 

Charge,  336;  penalty,  337 

Description,  338 ;  in  pred.,  id.  a ; 
gen.  and  abl.  of  description 
compared,  id.  N. ;  gen.  of 
measure,  340 ;  indefinite 
value,  341 

Partitive,  or  genitive  of  the 
whole,  342  ;  w.  ad  vs.,  343  ; 
abl.  w.  e,  ex,  or  de  used  in- 
stead, especially  w.  cardinals 
or  quidam,  344 ;  rare  in  adjs. 
of  decl.  Ill,  347 

Material,  348  ;  abl.  w.  ex  used 
instead,  id.  a 

Plenty  or  want,  349 ;  abl.  used 
instead,  350 

With  adjectives  of  similarity, 
etc.,  351  ;  dat.  used  instead, 
id.  N.,  397,  398 ;  alienus, 
constr.  after,  398.  c 

With  refert  and  interest,  352 

Objective  with  nouns  of  action 
or  feeling,  354;  other  con- 
structions, 355 

Application,  356 


INDEX 


383 


With  adjectives   of  action  or 

feeling,  357 
With  verbs,  358-366;  memini, 
etc.,  358  ;  vbs.  of  reminding, 
361  ;  impersonals,  miseret, 
etc.,  363,  364;  misereor, 
miserescS,  365 ;  potior,  366, 
469.  (i.N.  I 
Agreeing  w.  a  gen.  implied  in 

a  poss.  adj.,  529 
Gerund  and  gerundive,  874-876 
Position,  915,  916 
Gens  or  clan,  134 
genu,  decl.,  1 19.  N. 
-ger.  comps.  in,  decl.,  85.  a.  i,  142.  a 
Gerund 

Forms :  formation,  238;  -undi  for 

-endi,  id.  N. 
Syntax,  871-880;  neut.  sing,  of 
gerundive,  871  ;  compared  w. 
gerundive,  872;  gen.  of,  874; 
w.  causa  or  gratia  to  express 
purpose,  875  ;  dat.  of,  877;  ace. 
of,  w.  ad  to  express  purpose, 
878 ;  abl.  of,  879  ;  gerund  w. 
dir.  obj.,  880.  a ;  w.  neut.  adj., 
id.  ^;  gerund ofutor,  etc.,  id. ^.N. 
Gerundive 

Forms  :  formation,  240.  d 
Syntax,  869-8S0  ;  after  cur6,  d6, 
etc.,  to  denote  purpose,  869; 
compared  w.  gerund,  872  ;  gen. 
of,  874;  w.  causa  or  gratU  to 
express  purpose,  875;  w.  mei, 
tui,  8ui,  etc.,  876;  dat.  of,  877  ; 
ace.  of,  w.ad  to  express  purpose, 
878 ;  abl.  of,  879  ;  relative  fre- 
quency and  limitations  of  ger- 
und and  gerundive,  880 
gin-,  stems  in,  98.  b 


Giving  over,  vbs.  of,  w.  fut.  pass. 

part,  expressing  purpose,  869 
gracilis,  compar.,  1 56 
Gradation  of  vowels,  56,  57 
Grammatical  gender,  67-69 
grfitia,  gratiae,  133 
gratii,  w.  gen.,  331,  463;  w.  gen. 

of  gerund,  875 
Greek  accusative,  427 
Greek  nouns,  decl.  I,  81 ;  decl.  II, 

89;  decl.  Ill,  III,  112 
Greek  plurals  in  -as  or  -es,  quantity, 

954.  tf 
grfls,  decl.,  109. /z 
gu,  sound  of,  before  a  vowel,  16, 

954.  N. 

h,  does  not  make  position,  32;  eli- 
sion of  vowel  before,  98 1 

habeO,  imv.  of,  691 ;  w.  past  part, 
865 

Happening,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.  clause, 

739 
baud,  594 
baud  scid  an,  nesciO  an,  w.  subjv., 

818 
have  (ave),  defect,  vb.,  265.// 
Helping,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat,  376;   w. 

ace,  id.  a 
Hendiadys,  944 
heri,  loc.,  488 
Heroic  verse,  995 
hfirOs,  decl.,  1 1 2 
Heteroclites,  130 
Heterogeneous  nouns,  131,  132 
Hexameter  verse,  975.  a,  995 
Hiatus,  983 
hie,   decl.,    1 88 ;   formation,   id.  a ; 

early  forms,  id.  b\  use,  533,  539, 

543 


384 


INDEX 


Hindering,  opposing,  etc.,  vbs.  of, 
w.  ne,  quin,  or  qu5minus  and 
subjv.,  720.  Ill ;  w.  inf.,  id.  a 

Historical  infinitive,  844 

Historical  perfect,  or  past  absolute, 
658.  II 

Historical  present,  648 ;  sequence 
after,  700 

Hortatory  subjunctive,  672 

hortor,  deponent  vb.,  conj.,  247 ; 
constr.  after,  720.  I 

humi,  loc,  488 

humilis,  compar.,    156 

humus,  gender,  86.  c 

Hundreds,  how  declined,  1 66.  c 

Hypallage,  950.  d 

Hysteron  proteron,  945 

i,  as  vowel  and  as  cons.,  2.b;  as  semi- 
vowel, 9  ;  as  transient  vowel,  18  ; 
in  comps.  of  iacio,  1 9  :  quantity 
when  final,  961  ;  quantity  of 
syllable  preceding  cons,  i,  968  ; 
i  as  a  cons,  in  verse,  991 

i,  sound,-  1 4 ;  changed  from  S  or  S, 
44.  <z-^;  in  Greek  voc,  112; 
for  6  in  conj.  Ill,  221,  229.  a.  2 

i,  sound,  14;  changed  from  ae,  44.  d\ 
for  -ii  in  gen.  sing,  of  nouns  in 
-ius  (-ium),  88.  b ;  in  voc.  of 
filius  and  proper  names  in  -ius, 
id.  ^;  in  abl.  of  decl.  Ill,  100; 
in  loc.  of  decl.  Ill,  1 10  ;  in  gen. 
of  decl.  IV,  121.  a  \  in  gen.  of 
decl.  V,  125.  ^ ;  in  dat.  of  alius, 
etc.,  143  ;  as  subjv.  mood  sign, 
233.^.1;  in  forms  of  fio,  95 5. ^.3 

i-stems,  decl.  Ill,  100-104;  mixed, 
105-108;  inadjs.,  145;  in  vbs., 
210,  220.  r,  289 


-ia,  suffix  of  abstract  nouns,  283 
iacio,  comps.  of,  19,  31,  968.  N. 
iam,  use,  590  ;  iam  vero,  marking  a 
transition,  613.  N. ;    iam,  iam 
diu,  etc.,  w.  pres.,  650  ;  w.  past 
descript.,  654 
Iambus,  975 ;  iambic  verse,  id.  a,  976 
-ias,  patronymic  suffix,  282.^ 
-ibam  for  -iebam  in  conj.  IV,  229.  b.  2 
-ibo  for  -iam  in  conj.  IV,  229.  ^.  N.  2 
-icius,  adj.  suffix,  285.  d 
Ictus,  defined,  978  ;  how  observed, 

993-^ 
-icus,  noun  suffix,  282.  <: ;  adj.  suffix, 

285.^ 
idem,  deck,  191;  formation,  id.  a; 

use,  545  ;  w.  qui,  ac,  or  atque, 

the  same  as,  546 ;  meaning  also, 

too,  etc.,  547 
Ides  (13th  or  15th  of  month),  loio 
-ides  (-ides),  patronymic  suffix,  282.^ 
Idiomatic  uses  of  the  ace,  438 
idoneus,    compar.,    1 62 ;     w.  dat, 

397.  <2  ;  w.  ad  and  ace,  398.  a  ; 

w.  rel.  ck,  717;  w.  gerund,  ^jj 
Idus,  gender,  120 
-ie,  in  voc.  of  adjs.  in  -ius,  140.  a 
iecur,  deck,  109.^,  130,  <: 
-ier,  in  inf.  pass.,  237.  a.  2.  N. 
igitur,  use,  618.^;  position,  924 
ignis,  deck,  102 
ignosco,  w.  dat.,  376 
-ii,   in  gen.  of  decl.   II,   ^^.b;   of 

adjs.,  140.  a 
ii,  iis,  from  is,  190. « 
-ile,  noun  suffix,  282.  b 
ilion,  decl.,  89 
-ills,  -bills,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  1 56, 

1 60.^; 'verbal  adj.  suffix,  287.^ 
-ills,  adj.  suffix,  285.  d 


INDEX 


38S 


ille,  decl.,  1 88 ;  ollns  in  early  Latin, 
id.  N. ;  combined  w.  -ce,  id.  a ; 
use,  537  ;  meaning  the  JamouSy 
538,  918.^1;  the  former,  539; 
the  latter,  id.  N. 

-illO,  vb.  suffix,  290.  c 

-illus.  diminutive  suffix,  282 

-im,  ace.  ending,  decl.  Ill,  100,  102  ; 
in  pres.  subjv.,  233,  a.  i 

imber,  decl.,  102.  a 

impedimentum,  impedimenta,  133 

Imperative  mood,  205;  terminations, 
218;  formation,  235  ;  die,  due, 
fae,  fer,  id.  c ;  use,  689,  690 ; 
fut.  imv.  of  seio.  memini,  and 
habeo  for  pres.,  691;  in  condi- 
tions, 785. rt  ;  in  ind.  disc.,  887. 
Ill 

Imperative  sentence,  296.  4 

Imperfect  indicative,  see  Past  de- 
scriptive 

imperO,  w.  dat..  376;  w.  ace,  380; 
\v.  ut  and  subjv.,  720,  I 

Impersonal  use  of  pass.  w.  inf.  d. 
as  subj.,  840.  a 

Impersonal  verbs,  266;  subj.  not 
expressed,  317:  miseret,  paeni- 
tet,  etc.,  w.  ace.  and  gen.,  363  ; 
impers.  pass,  of  intrans.  vbs., 
379;  decet,  iuvat,  etc.,  w.  ace., 
407 ;  impers.  vbs.  w.  inf.  as 
subj.,  834 

impetus,  decl.,  p.  46 

Implied  conditions,  802 

Implied  indirect  discourse,  905,  906 

impdnO,  constr.  after,  490 

imus.  superl.,  1 59 ;  meaning  base  of, 
510 

in,  prep.,  use,  278.  a ;  compounded 
w.  vbs.,  294.  a ;  in  comps.  that 


take  the  dat,  382;  in  comps. 
taking  the  ace.,  406.  b\  w. 
ace  of  place  whither,  428 ;  w. 
names  of  countries,  429 ;  w.  abl. 
of  place  where,  485  ;  w.  abl.  of 
time,  493;  w.  abl.  of  gerund, 
879 

in-,  inseparable  prefix,  294.  b 

In  the  vicinity  of,  expressed  by  ad 
w.  ace,  43 1 

-ina,  noun  suffix.  282.  d 

Inceptive  verbs,  290.  a 

Incomplete  action,  tenses  of,  645, 
646 

Indeclinable  adjectives,  152 

Indeclinable  nouns,  1 28.  a 

Indefinite  pronouns,  meaning  and 
declension,  200  ;  use,  569-577; 
defined,  569;  quia,  qui,  570; 
aliquis,  aliqui.  571  ;  quidam, 
572:  quisquam  and  iillus.  573  ; 
nem5  and  nullus.  574:  nesci5 
quia,  575;  quisque,  576:  uter- 
que,  f577 ;  normal  position, 
918;  emphatic  position,  934.  d,  e 

Indefinite  value,  gen.  of,  341 

Indicative  mood,  205  ;  tenses,  206, 
228 
Forms:  formation  of  pres.,  229.^ ; 
past  descript.,  id.  b\  fut.,  id.  c\ 
perf.,  230.  a ;  past  perf..  id.  b  ; 
fut.  perf.,  id.  c ;  perf.  pass,  sys- 
tem, 231 
Syntax:  general  use,  642 ;  in  ex- 
pressions of  duty,  propriety, 
etc.,  643.  a  ;  for  subjv.,  id.  b ; 
tenses,  644-646;  pres.,  647- 
651 ;  past  descript.,  652-654; 
fut.,  655-657;  perf.,  658-660; 
^past  perf.,  661 ;  fut.  perf.,  662, 


386 


INDEX 


663  ;  in  deliberative  questions, 
679 ;  in  quod  clauses  of  fact, 
821-825 

indigeo,  w.  gen.,  350 

indignus,  w.  abl.,  479 ;  w.  qui  and 
subjv.,  717 

Indirect  discourse,  direct  and  indirect 
quotation,  883,  884  ;  verbs  that 
take  ind.  disc,  885 ;  vb.  of 
saying  implied,  id.  a.\  moods 
in  ind.  disc,  886;  prin.  clauses 
in  ind.  disc,  887 ;  declarative 
clauses,  id.  I ;  tenses  of  inf.  in 
ind.  disc,  id.  b ;  posse  w.  fut. 
force,  id.  N.  I  ;  inf.  constr.  con- 
tinued after  a  comparative  w. 
quam,  id.  N.  2 ;  real  and  rhe- 
torical questions  in  ind.  disc, 
^Z'j.  II ;  deliberative  subjv.  in 
ind.  disc,  id.  a  ;  commands  and 
volitive  or  optative  subjv.  in 
ind.  disc,  887.  Ill ;  prohibitions 
w.  noli  in  ind.  disc,  id.  a  ;  sub- 
ord.  clauses  in  ind.idisc,  888- 
•897;  tenses  of  the  subjv.  in 
ind.  disc,  889-894 ;  subjv. 
depending  on  perf.  inf.,  893  ; 
pres.  and  perf.  after  secondary 
tense,  894 ;  subord.  clauses  not 
part  of  ind.  disc,  895 ;  rel. 
clauses  equivalent  to  prin. 
clauses,  896;  conditional  sen- 
tences in  ind.  disc,  898-904; 
implied  ind.  disc,  905,  906 

Indirect  object,  defined,  370;  w. 
trans,  vbs.,  371  ;  w.  intrans. 
vbs.,  376;  w.  comps.,  382 

Indirect  questions,  defined,  621.^., 
812,813;  introduced  by  interrog. 
prons.   and  advs.,   %\\.a\    by 


-ne  or  nuni,id./^;  by  si  (whether)^ 
id.  c ;  fut.  time  in,  815;  delib- 
erative   subjv.    in,    816;     ind. 
alternative  questions,  817;  haud 
scio  an,  nescio  an,  8 1 8;  forsitan, 
819;  nescio  quis,  etc.,  820 
Indirect  quotation,  see  Indirect  dis- 
course 
Indirect  reflexives,  520-523 
indulges,  w.  dat.,  376 
induo,  pass,  as  middle,  406.  d 
ineo,  constr.  after,  382.  «: 
Inferential  conjunctions,  618 
inferus,  compar.,  1 59  ;  inferi,  id.  a 
Infinitive,  205.  a,  827 

Fonns :  formation  of  pres.  act., 
237.  a.  I  ;  pres.  pass.,  id.  a.  2  ; 
perf.  act.,  id.  b.  i  ;  perf.  pass., 
id.  b.  2 ;  fut.  act.,  id.  c.  i  ;  fut. 
pass.,  id.  c.  2 
Syntax:  inf.  used  instead  of  a  gen. 
after  miseret,  paenitet,  etc.,  364; 
subj.  of  inf.,  419;  inf.  w.  noli, 
676;  tenses  of,  828-831  ;  pres. 
w.  debui,  oportuit,  etc.,  829 ; 
pres.  expressing  past  time  in 
ind.  disc,  830  ;  fore  ut,  etc,  for 
fut.  inf.,  831  ;  used  as  subj., 
833,  834;  as  appositive  or  pred. 
noun,  835  ;  as  obj.,  836-840 ; 
complementary  inf.,  836-838; 
vbs.  followed  by,  837 ;  case  of 
pred.  noun  or  adj.,  838 ;  w. 
reflexive  pron.  as  subj.,  id.  a ; 
w.  subj.  ace,  839,  840  ;  w.  adjs., 
841  ;  inf.  of  purpose,  842 ;  in 
exclamations,  843 ;  historical 
inf.,  844 ;  as  pure  noun,  845  ; 
in  ind.  disc,  Z%T.  I.  b\  after 
quam  w.  comparative,  id.  N.  2 


INDEX 


387 


infitUs.  defect,   128.  ^.N.;  infitias 

ire.  435 

Inflection,  defined,  59 

Informal  indirect  discourse,  905,906 

infra,  use,  276 

inggns,  decl.,  148.  a 

iniuria,  as  abl.  of  manner,  461 

iniussu,  defect.,  121.^;  as  abl.  of 
manner,  461 

innixus,  w.  abl.,  469.  c 

inops,  dec).,  148.  rt,^;  w.  gen.,  350 

inquam,  conj.,  265.  b ;  position, 
928 

Inseparable  prefixes,  294.  b 

insidiae,  dat.  w.,  383 

instar.  indecl.,  128.  «;  gen.  w.,  331 

Instrumental  ablative,  439.  II, 
456  ff. 

Integral  part,  subjv.  of,  907-909 

Intensive  pronoun,  ipse,  formation 
and  decl.,  192;  use,  548-550 

Intensive  verbs,  290,  b 

inter,  use,  276;  in  comps.,  294.  a; 
comps.of,w.  dat.,382;  internds, 
etc.,  524;  position,  925.  <; 

interest,  w.  gen.,  or  w.  abl.  fern,  of 
poss.  pron.,  352;  degree  of  in- 
terest, how  expressed,  id,  b 

interficiO.  constr.  after,  382.  a 

interior,  compar.,  160.  a 

Interjections,  280 

Interlocked  order  of  words,  946 

Interrogative  particles,  623,  627 

Interrogative  pronouns  and  adjec- 
tives, decl.  of  quis,  196;  decl. 
of  qui,  197;  use,  566-568;  quit 
and  qui,  566 ;  uter,  567  ;  other 
interrogs.,  568  ;  position.  922    . 

Interrogative  sentences,  296.  2; 
forms  of,  620-628 


interrogO,  w.  two  aces.,  413.  N. 

intimus,  inmost  part  o/,  $10 

intra,  use,  276 

Intransitive  verbs,  defined,  p.  180. 
ftn.  I  ;  used  impersonally  in 
pass.,  266/^, 3 79;  dat.w.,376ff.; 
used  transitively  w.  ace.  and  dat., 
380;  w.  ace.  of  kindred  meaning, 
408 

intr(J,  as  prefix,  294.  a 

-inum,  noun  suffix,  282.  if 

-inus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  ^/ 

invideO,  w.  dat.,  3  76 ;  w.  dat  and  ace, 
380 

-i5,  class  of  vbs.,  221.  ^;  forms  of 
vbs.  in,  conj.  IV,  245 ;  conj. 
Ill,  246;  noun  suffix,  282.^, 
284.  b 

locus,  ioca,  132 

ipse,  intensive  pron.,  formation  and 
decl.,  192;  used  as  indirect  re- 
flexive, 522,  549.6-;  in  gen. 
agreeing  w.  gen.  implied  in  a 
poss.  adj.,  529 ;  used  as  subst., 
549;  distinguished  from  a  re- 
flexive, id.  N.  I ;  agrees  w.  subj. 
when  emphasis  in  Eng.  is  on  a 
reflexive  in  the  pred.,  id.  N.  2 ; 
meaning  7'ery,  even,  exactly, 
etc.,  550 

irascor,  w.  dat.,  376 

iri,  in  fut.  pass,  inf.,  237.  c.  2,  882. 
I.  a.  N. 

Irregular  comparison  of  adjs.,  1 58- 

•59 

Irregular  verbs,  conj.,  251-261 

is,  final,  quantity,  965 

is,  decl.,  190  ;  is  for  iis,  id.  a  \  use, 
540-544  ;  such,  of  such  a  kind, 
541  :  combined  w.  et  or  atque, 


388 


INDEX 


and  that  too,  542 ;  omitted  w. 

part.,  544.  N. ;  is  qui,  the  one 

who,    the   one    to,   w.    subjv., 

727 
-is,  patronymic  suffix,  282.^ 
Islands,  names  of,  place  to,  ace,  430, 

431 ;  place  from,  abl.,  442,  443; 

place  at  or  in,  abl.  or  loc,  485.  ^, 

486 
iste,  decl.,  189;  use,  535;  implying 

contempt,  536 
It,    subj.   of   impers.  vb.,    not   ex- 
pressed, 317 
ita,  use,  589;   in  answers,  629.(2; 

ita  ut  w.  subjv.,  732 
itaque,  use,  618 
iter,  decl,,  109 
-ito,  vbs.  in,  290.  b 
-itus,  adverbs  in,  272.  c 
iubeo,  w.  ace,  376.  a;  w.  inf.,  720. 

I.  a,  839.  c 
-ium,  in  gen.  plur.  of  decl.  Ill,  100- 

109;  of  adjs.,  145,  148.^;  noun 

suffix,  284.  b 
luppiter,  decl.,  109 
lure,  as  abl.  of  manner,  461 
-ius,  gen.  and  voc.  of  nouns  in,  88,  b.  c\ 

of  adjs.  in,  \/^o.a\  adj.  suffix, 

285.  rt' 
-ius,  gen.  sing,  ending,  143 ;  quantity 

of  i,  id.  c 
iiis,  decl.,  p.  46 
iussu,    defect,,   \i\.e\    as  abl.  of 

manner,  461 
iuvat,  w.  ace,  407 
iuvenis,  decl.,  107.  b;  compar.,  160. 

c.  I 
iuv5,  w.  ace,  376.  a 
iuxta,  use,  276 
-ivus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  d  1 


j  (the  character),  2.  b 
Judging,  dat.  of  the  person,  387 
Julian  calendar,  1008 
Jussive  subjunctive,  673 ;    in  com- 
mands, 674;  in  prohibitions,  675 

k,  supplanted  by  c,  2.  a 

Kalendae,  loio 

Kindred   meaning,   accusative    of, 

408 ;  w.  vbs.  of  taste  and  smell, 

409 ;  of  neut.  pron.  or  adj .,  4 1  o  ; 

in  poetry,  411 
Knowing,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace  and  inf., 

885 
Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  357 

Labials,  7.  a 

laedo,  w.  ace,  376.  a 

laeva,  abl.  without  prep.,  485. « 

lampas,  decl.,  1 1 2 

Latin  language.    Introduction,   pp. 

xiii  ff. 
Length  by  position,  967,  991 
-lens,  -lentus,  adj.  suffixes,  285.  a 
Less    definite     future    conditions, 

783,  b,  789 
lex  est  ut,  w.  subjv.,  723,  741 
liber,  adj.,  decl.,  141 
libet,  w.  dat.,  378 
licet,  w.  dat.,  378;   w.  subjv.,  722; 

meaning   although,   w.  subjv., 

810  ;  w.  inf.  and  dat.,  834.  a 
Likeness,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  351;  w. 

dat.,  397.  a,  398.  b 
Linguals,  7.  b 
linter,  decl.,  102. « 
Liquids,  8.  r;  stems  in,  decl.  Ill, 

96,  97 
-lis,  adjs.  in,  compar.,  156,  160.^ 
lis,  decl,  106.  d 


INDEX 


389 


List  of  verbs,  pp.  128-139 

Litotes,  947 

littera.  litterae,  133 

Locative  ablative  uses,439. 1 1 1, 485(1. 

Locative  case,  defined,  74.  a ;  in 
decl.  I,  80.  r;  in  decl.  11,88.^  ; 
in  decl.  Ill,  no;  w.  abl.  in 
apposition,  313;  denoting  place 
where,  486,  487  ;  list  of  special 
nouns  having  loc.  forms,  488 ; 
domi  w.  modifier,  489 

loc6,  vb.,  w.  fut.  pass.  part,  express- 
ing purpose,  869 

locO.  locis,  without  prep.,  485.  a 

locus,  loca,  132 

Long  and  short,  see  Quantity 

Long  vowels,  953 

longinquus,  compar.,  160.^ 

longius,  without  quam,  450 

longum  est,  difficile  est,  etc.,  w. 
subjv.  meaning,  643.  b 

Ifix,  decl.,  p.  46 

m,  inserted  in  vb.  root,  221.2; 
elision  in  verse,  981 

-m,  sign  of  ace,  76.  c 

magis,  as  sign  of  comparison,  162 

magni,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N. 

magnus.  compar.,  158 

Main  clause,  defined,  300 

maior  natu,  478 

maiOrgs,  meaning,  503 

Making,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after,  417 

male,  compar.,  274;  comps.  of,  w. 
dat.,  378 

milO.  conj.,  255  ;  w.  inf.  or  subjv., 
720.  I.  ^;  w.  inf.,  839.  b 

mains,  compar.,  1 58 

mandO.  w.  fut.  pass,  part  express- 
ing purpose,  869 


mine,  defect,  1 28.  b 

Manner,  abl.  of,  459 ;  cum  omitted, 

460,  461  ;  manner  denoted  by 

part.,  861.  </ 
manus,  gender,  1 20 
man,  loc.  abl.,  485.  a 
Masculine  caesura,  999.  a 
Masculine  gender,  general  rule,  67.  a 
Material,    adjs.  of,  not  compared, 

161.  tf;  gen.  of,  348;  abl.  of, 

452;  prep,  omitted  in  poetry. 

id.  a 
maturus,  compar.,  155. « 
maxims,     sign    of    superl.,     162; 

compar.,  274 
Means,  nouns  denoting,  284.  c ;  abl. 

of,    468 :    special    uses,    469 ; 

denoted  by  per  w.  ace,  id.  d. 

N.  2. ;  by  part,  861.  f: 
Measure,  gen.  of,  340 ;  unit  of,  in 

verse,  973 
medius,  middle  of ,  510 
mei,  w.  gerundive,  876 
mel,  decl.,  p.  46 

melius  est,  //  would  be  better^  643 
mSmS,  1 80.  b 
memini,  conj.,  263 ;  in  pres.  sense, 

id.  b,  660  ;  w.  ace.  or  gen.,  358. 

a,  b\  imv.,  691 
memor,  decl.,  148.  rt,^ 
Memory,  adjs.  of,  constr.  after,  357  ; 

vbs.  of,  constr.  after,  358 
Men,  names  of,  1 34 
-men,  -mentum,  noun  suffixes,  284.  b 
meridigs,  gender,  i  24 
merits,  as  abl.  of  manner,  461 
meritus,  compar.,  160.  ^ 
messis,  decl.,  102.  e 
-met,  enclitic,  180.  a 
Metamorphoses,  decl.,  112.^ 


390 


INDEX 


Meters  and  verse  forms,  970-992 ; 
verse  defined,  970;  foot  de- 
fined, 971,  972;  mora  defined, 
973,  974 ;  kinds  of  feet,  975  ; 
names  of  verse,  id.  a  ;  measures 
of  verse,  976  ;  substitution,  977 ; 
ictus,  978 ;  thesis  and  arsis, 
979;  scansion,  98Q ;  elision, 
981  ;  hiatus,  983  ;  syllaba  an- 
ceps^  984  ;  catalectic  and  acata- 
lectic,  985  ;  caesura,  986 ;  diaere- 
sis, 987;  synizesis  or  synaere- 
sis,  988;  systole,  989;  diastole, 
990 ;  tmesis,  992 

metuo,  w.  subjv.,  720.  II 

meus,  voc.  mi,  140.  b 

Middle  voice,  406.  d 

mihi  (tibi,  etc.)  in  mentem  venit, 
w.  gen.,  360 

miles,  decl.,  94 

militiae,  loc,  488 

mille,  decl.  and  constr.,  166.  d 

minime,  compar,,  274;  in  neg. 
answers,  629.  d 

minimi,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N. 

minitor,  w.  dat.,  376;  w.  dat.  and 
ace,  380 

minor,  compar.,  158;  w.  natii,  478 

minores,  meaning,  503 

minoris,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N.; 
denoting  price,  id.  a 

minus,  compar.,  274;  constr.  with- 
out quam,  450 

miser,  decl.,  142.^;  compar.,  155 

misereor  and  miseresco,   w.  gen., 

365 
miseret,  impers.,  266;  w.  ace.  and 

gen.,  363 
Mixed  i-stems,  105-107 
modo,  provided^  w.  subjv.,  81  \ 


modo,  as  abl.  of  manner,  461 

moneo,  conj.,  243 ;  constr.  after 
comps.  of,  361 

-monia,  -monium,  noun  suffixes, 
284.^ 

Monosyllables,  quantity,  956,  957 

Months,  gender  of  names  of,  67.  a  ; 
decl.  of  names  in  -ber,  146. a; 
names  of,  1009;  division  of,  in 
Roman  calendar,   loio 

Moods,  names  of,  205 

Moods  and  tenses,  formation  of, 
indie,  228-231  ;  subjv.,  232- 
234;  imv.,  235;  uses  of,  in 
independent  sentences,  641- 
691  ;  in  subord.  clauses,  692- 
869 ;  in  ind.  disc,  883-909 

Mora,  in  verse,  973-975 

More  definite  future  conditions,  788 

mos,  mores,  133 

mos  est,  iiis  est,  etc.,  w.  ut  and 
subjv.,  723,  741 

Motion,  to,  ace,  428,  430;  from,  abl., 
441,442;  vbs.  of,  w.  supine, 
882.1 

Multiplication  by  distributives,  173.  b 

multum,  compar.,  274 

multus,  compar.,  158 

mUs,  decl.,  106.  d 

Musical  accent  in  verse,  978 

Mutes,  8.  a;  stems  in,  decl.  Ill, 
92  ff. 

miito,  constr.  after,  472 

mythos,  decl.,  89 

n,  sound  before  c,  q,  or  g,  16; 
dropped  when  final  letter  of 
stem,  98.  a,  b  ;  inserted  in  vb. 
root,  221.^,  2 

nais,  decl.,  1 1 2 


1M)KX 


391 


-nam.  enclitic  w.  intcrrogs.,  197.  d, 
626 

nam.  namque,  use,  61  7 

Names,  of  months,  gender  and  decl., 
67.  a^  1 46.  a,  1 009 ;  of  men, 
134;  of  women,  135;  of  slaves, 
.36 

Naming,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  41  7 

Nasals,  8.  b\  stems  in,  98,  99; 
inserted  in  vb.  root,  zz\.  g,z 

nfttu,  defect.,  121.^;  w.  maior  or 
minor,  478 

n&tus,  w.  ace.  or  abl.  in  expressing 
age,  422. fl;  w.  abl.  of  origin, 451 

n&vis,  decl.,  102.^ 

-nd  and  -nt,  vowel  short  before, 
34. /J,  955.  rt 

-ne,  enclitic,  in  questions,  623.  a ; 
w.  force  of  n5nne,  id.  N. ; 
omitted,  624;  in  alternative 
questions,  627;  in  ind.  ques- 
tions, 814.^;  w.  inf.  in  excla- 
mations, 843 

n6,  neg.,  594 ;  w.  hortatory  subjv., 
672  ;  w.  jussive  subjv.,  673  ;  w. 
prohibitions,  675,  676.  b\  w. 
concessive  subjv.,  677  ;  w.  opta- 
tive subjv.,  680 ;  w.  imv.,  689 ;  in 
purpose  clauses,  713  ff.;  after 
vbs.  of  fearing,  720.  II;  after 
vbs.  of  hindering,  etc.,  id".  Ill 

n€,  surely,  593 

nS  .  .  .  quidem,  592.  a  \  after  n5n, 
595.  a\  after  n6n  modo,  id.  N. 

Nearness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  397.  a 

necesse.  indecl.,  152 

necesse  est  ut,  w.  subjv.,  722 

Necessity,  vbs.  of,  in  conclusion  of 
conditions  contrary  to  fact, 
797.  a 


necne,  in  alternative  questions,  627. «, 

817 
nef&s,    indecl.,    1 28.  a  ;    w.  supine, 

882.11 
Negative,  position  of,  929 
Negative  adverbs,  594-596;    n5n, 

594  ;  nullus  for  non,  id.  N. ;  two 

negatives  cancel,  595  ;  negative 

after  words  of  general  negation, 

id.  a ;    n5n  modo  .  .  .  sed  ne 

.  .  .  quidem,  id.  N. ;  and  not^ 

596 
Negative  answers,  629.  b 
neg5,  for  dic5  non,  596 
ngmd,  decl.,  p.  46 ;  nemo  and  nullus, 

5  74 ;  nemo  or  niillus  est  qui  w. 

subjv.,  727 
n^uam,    indecl.,     152;     compar., 

158 
neque  (nee)  .  .  .  neque  (nee),  604 ; 

after  a  neg.,  595.  a  ;  neque,  and 

not,  596,  603 
nequeo,  conj.,  260 
nesciO  an,  w.  subjv.,  818 
nesci5  quis,   nesciO  qu5  modO,  as 

indefinites,  575,  820 
-neus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  t 
neuter,  decl.,  143 
Neuter  ace.  as  adv.,  271.  rr,  273 
Neuter   gender,   general    rule,   68 : 

cases  alike  in,  76.  b 
Neuter   pron.    as   ace.    of    kindred 

meaning.  410 
n6ve  or  neu,  for  et  ne,  603,  713.  t 
nex,  decl,  p.  46 
ni,  nisi,  use,  775 
nihil,  indecl.,  1 28.  a 
nihili,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N. 
nimis,  as  noun,  586 
Nine  irregular  adjs.,  143 


392 


INDEX 


nisi  and  si  non,  use,  775  ;  nisi  si 
or  nl,  id.  a;  nisi  ver5  or  nisi 
forte  introducing  an  ironical 
objection,  776 

nix,  decl.,  109 

No,  in  answers,  how  expressed,  629.  d 

-no,  class  of  vbs.  in,  221.^ 

noceo,  w.  dat.,  376 

noli,  in  prohibitions,  676;  in  ind. 
disc,  887.  III. « 

nolo,  conj.,  255 ;  w.  inf.  or  subjv., 
720.  l.d;  w.  inf.,  839.  d 

Nomen,  denoting  the  gens,  134.  ^ 

nomen  est,  w.  pred.  nom.  or  dat., 
390.  a 

Nominative  case,  defined,  74 

Fo7-7)is :    neuter    nom.    and    ace. 
alike,  76.*^;  nom.  sing. of  decl. 
1,78;  decl.  II,  83;  decl.  Ill, 
92,  96,  98,   102,  103,  106; 
decl.  IV,  118;  decl.  V,  1 22 
Syntax :  subject,  316 
In  exclamations,  319 
Subject  of  historical  infinitive, 

320,  844 
Instead  of  vocative,  322 

non,  use,  594 ;  nullus  for  non,  id.  N. ; 
non  followed  by  nee  .  .  .  nee, 
etc.,  595.  a ;  and  not,  596,  603  ; 
in  answers,  629,  b  ;  w.  delibera- 
tive subjv.,  678 ;  w.  potential 
subjv.,  684 

non  dubito,  quis  dubitat,  etc.,  w. 
quin  and  subjv.,  720.  IV 

non  modo  .  .  .  sed  ne  .  .  .  quidem, 
595.  N. 

non  nUlli,    non  nihil,    non  nemo, 

595 
non    quia    (quod,    quo,    quin),    w. 

subjv.,  770 


Non-committal  conditions,  present, 
785  ;  past,  792  ;  in  ind.  disc, 
900.  I 

Nones  (nonae),  i  o  i  o 

nonne,  in  questions,  623.  <5;  omitted, 
624 

nos,  decl.,  180  ;  nos  and  noster  used 
for  ego  and  mens,  5 1 1 .  « 

nostri,  as  objective  gen.,  514;  w. 
gerundive  in  -i,  876 

nostrum,  as  partitive  gen.,  514 

Noun  and  adjective  forms  of  vb., 
205.  a  ;  formation,  236-240 

Nouns,  defined  and  classified,  72 ; 
gender  of  indecl.  nouns,  68 ; 
decl.  of  nouns,  73-133;  de- 
rivatives, 282-284 ;  syntax, 
305  ff. ;  used  as  adjs.,  506.  b 

novi  or  cognSvi,  in  pres.  sense, 
660 

novus,  compar.,  160.  b 

nox,  decl.,  107 

ns,  nf,  nx,  net,  quantity  of  vowel 
preceding,  34.  a,  953.  a 

nubes,  decl.,  107 

nulla  causa  est  ciir(qua  re,  quin),  w. 
subjv.,  725 

nailus,  decl.,  143. «;  use,  574;  for 
nemo,  id.  b 

num,  in  questions,  623.  c ;  omitted, 
624;  in  ind.  questions,  814.  ^ 

Number,  71  ;  nouns  used  only  in 
sing.,  1 26 ;  nouns  used  only  in 
plur.,  1 27 ;  number  in  vbs.,  208 ; 
agreement  of  appositives  in 
number,  312.  « ;  of  adjs.,  497- 
502  ;  of  rel.  prons.,  552;  of  vbs., 
631,634,  635 

Numeral  adjectives,  position,  914.^? 

Numeral  adverbs,  1 75 


INDEX 


393 


Numerals,  1 63- 1  76  ;  cardinals,  or- 
dinals, and  distributives,  164: 
decl.  of,  1 66,  167;  use  of  cardi- 
nals and  ordinals,  1 68- 172;  use 
of  distributives,  1 73 ;  fractions, 
1 74  ;  numeral  advs.,  1 75  ; 
Roman  numeral  system,  1 76 

nunc,  compared  w.  iam,  590 

-nus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  r,  d 

nusquam,  as  noun,  586 

0,  for  u  in  early  Latin,   1 2.  </,  d,  c ; 
sound,  1 4 ;  quantity  of  final,  962 
0  si,  w.  subjv,  of  wish,  683 
0-stems,  decl.  II,  82-89;   of  adjs., 

1 39- '43 

ob,  use,  276;  as  prefix,  294.  «;  in 
comps.  w.  dat.,  382  ;  to  express 
cause,  464;  w. gerund,  878.  N.  2 

obeO,  constr.  after,  382.  a 

Obeying,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  376 

Object,  indirect  w.  dat.,  371-382; 
direct  w.  ace,  404-41  7;  second- 
ary obj.,  412,  413  ;  adjunct  ace, 
416,  417;  normal  position,  912 

Object  cases,  74 

Object  clauses,  purpose,  720;  result, 
737;  ind.  questions,  813  ;  inf. 
clauses,  836-839 

Objective  genitive,  defined,  326.  II; 
constructions  included,  353  ;  vv. 
nouns,  354;  w.  adjs.,  357;  w. 
vbs.,  358 

Oblique  cases,  defined,  74.  b 

obliquus.  compar.,  160,  ^ 

obliviscor,  w.  ace.  or  gen.,  358.  a,  b 

obtemperStiO.  dat.  w.,  383 

obtemperO.  dat.  w.,  376 

obvius  (obviam),  dat.  w.,  384 

Ocior,  compar.,  1 60.  a 


Ml,  conj.,  263;  w.  meaning  of  pres., 
id.  ^;  pass,  supplied  by  odiS 
esse,  id. 

oe,  diphthong,  sound,  15;  foroi  of 
early  Latin,  45 

-oe,  for  -i  in  nom.  plur.  of  Greek 
nouns,  decl.  II,  89.  <: 

offendO,  constr.  after,  376.  a,  382.  a 

Ollus,  for  ille,  188.  N. 

-olus,  diminutive  suffix,  282.  a 

Omission,  of  noun  on  which  a  gen. 
depends,  333 ;  of  poss.  adj., 
526;  of  antecedent,  557;  of  con- 
junctions, 605,  619;  of  subj., 
639 ;  of  vb.,  640 

omnis,  decl.,  147;  nos  omnes  (not 
omnes  nostrum),  345 

-Cn,  gen.  plur.  ending  of  Greek  nouns, 
decl.  II,  89.  r 

Onomatopoeia,  948 

Open  syllables,  23 

opera,  operae,  133 

opis,  decl.,  p.  46 

opitulor,  w.  dat.,  376 

oportet,  266;  w.  ace,  407;  w.  subjv., 
722 ;  in  conclusion  of  conditions 
contrary  to  fact,  797.  a ;  w. 
inf.,  834 

oportuit,  w.  pres.  inf.,  829 ;  w.  perf. 
inf.,  id.  N. 

oppidum,  w.  ad,  432 

oppugns,  constr.  after,  382.  a 

Optative  subjunctive,  680  ;  denoting 
a  wish  as  possible,  68 1 .  I ;  as 
unattained,  id.  II;  introduced 
by  utinam,  id. :  by  uti  or  ut, 
682  :  by  si  or  6  si,  683  ;  in  ind. 
disc.  887.  Ill 

optimitSs,  decl.,  106.//;  used  only 
in  plur.,  1 27.  c 


394 


INDEX 


opus,  indecl.,  128.  a;  w.  abl.,  469.  d  ; 
in  the  pred.,  id.  N.  i  ;  w.  past 
part.,  id.  N.  2,  867  ;  w.  supine, 
882.  II 

-or,  noun  suffix,  284.  3 

Oratio  obliqua,  see  Indirect  discourse 

orbis,  decl.,  102.  d 

Order  of  words,  910-949;  normal  or- 
der, 912-932;  rhetorical  order, 
933-934 ;  periodic  structure, 
936;  euphony  and  rhythm, 
937;  rhetorical  effects,  938-949 

Ordinal  numbers,  164;  decl,  167 

Origin,  abl.  of,  451 

oro,  w.  two  aces.,  413.  N. 

Orpheus,  decl.,  112 

Orthography,  11,12 

OS,  final,  quantity,  964 

OS,  ossis,  decl.,  109 

OS,  oris,  decl.,  p.  46 

-osus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  a 

ovis,  decl.,  \02.  d 

Oxymoron,  949 

pace  tua,  abl.  of  manner,  461 
pacto,  abl.  of  manner,  461 
paenitet,  266 ;  w.  ace.  and  gen.,  363 
palam,  as  apparent  adj.,  585 
Palatals,  7.  c 
par,  decl.,  148.  ^  ;  vv.  gen.,  351  ;  w. 

dat.,  397.  a 
paratus,  w.  inf.,  841 
parco,  w.  dat.,  376 
Pardoning,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  376 
Parenthetic  clause  of  purpose,  714 
pareo,  w.  dat.,  376 
Paris,  decl.,  112 
parte,   partibus,   loc.  abl.   without 

prep.,  485.  a 
partem,  adverbial  use,  438 


particeps,  decl.,  148.  I? 

Participial  stem,  formation,  225, 226 

Participial  system,  209.  Ill 

Participles,  205.  a,  240 

Forms :  formation,  240,  a-d;  decl. 
of  pres.  part,  1 49 ;  compar.,  1 54. 
a ;  parts,  of  deponent  vbs,,  247 
Syntax:  parts,  in  -ns  w.  gen., 
357;  inabl.abs.,  480  ;  nature  and 
agreement  of  parts.,  497,  846 ; 
tenses,  847-852  ;  ratus,  solitus, 
veritus,  etc.,  used  as  pres.,  848 ; 
pres.  part,  denoting  attempted 
action,  849 ;  pres.  pass,  part., 
how  supplied,  851  ;  past  act., 
how  supplied,  852;  part.  w. 
an  object  or  adv.  modifier, 
853  ;  used  as  an  attrib.  adj., 
855,  856;  as  pred.  adj.,  857; 
w.  tenses  of  esse,  858  ;  act.  peri- 
phrastic conj.,  859;  pass,  peri- 
phrastic conj.,  860 ;  part,  used 
for  phrase  or  clause,  86 1 ,  862  ; 
as  noun,  863  ;  w.  video,  audio, 
facio,  etc.,  for  an  inf.,  864; 
past  part.  w.  habeo,  865  ;  part, 
carrying  the  main  idea,  866; 
w.  opus,  867 ;  fut.  act.  part, 
expressing  purpose,  868 ;  fut. 
pass.  part.  w.  do,  trado-,  etc., 
expressing  purpose,  869 :  ge- 
rundive use,  870 

Particles,  defined,  268 ;  adverbs, 
269-274;  prepositions,  275- 
278;  conjunctions,  279;  inter- 
jections, 280 ;  interrogatives, 
623 

Particular  conditions,  defined,  778.  <2 

partior,  conj.,  247 

Partitive  apposition,  312./^ 


INDEX 


395 


Partitive  genitive  (genitive  of  the 
whole),  342;  w.  advs.,  343; 
rarely  used  w.  cardinals  or  qui- 
dam,  344 ;  not  used  w.  words 
including  the  whole,  345 ; 
rarely  used  w.  adjs.  of  decl.  Ill, 
347  :  nostrum  andvestrum,  514 

Parts  of  speech,  58 

panim,  compar.,  274 ;  used  as  noun, 
586 

parvi,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N. 

parvus,  compar.,  1 58 

Passive  periphrastic  conj.,  249,  250, 
860  ;  w.  dat.  of  agent,  392 

Passive  voice,  204 ;  prin.  parts, 
213;  personal  endings,  216; 
formation  of  perf.  pass.,  231  ; 
of  past  part.,  240.  t:;  offut.part., 
id. </;  deponent  vbs.,  247:  peri- 
phrastic conjs.,  249,  250;  im- 
pers.  pass,  of  intrans.  vbs.,  266.^ 

Past  absolute,  or  historical  perfect, 
658.11 

Past  conditions,  non-committal,  792; 
contrary  to  fact,  793 

Past  descriptive  (imperfect)  indie, 
formation,  229.  b\  use,  652; 
conative,  653  ;  w.  iam  diii,  etc., 
654 :  epistolary,  664 

Past  participle,  formation,  240,  c ; 
of  deponents,  247  ;  w.  dat.  of 
agent,  392 ;  time  denoted  by, 
847.  ^;  ratus,  solitus,  etc.,  used 
as  pres.,  848 ;  past  act.  part., 
how  supplied,  852 ;  part,  as 
attrib.  adj.,  855:  as  pred.  adj., 
857  :  w.  tenses  of  esse,  858 ;  for 
phrase  or  cl.,  86 1 ,  862 :  as  noun, 
863  ;  w,  habed.  865 ;  carrying 
main  idea,  866 ;  w.  opus,  867 


Past  perfect  (pluperfect)  indie,  for- 
mation, 230.  b ;  use,  661 ;  episto- 
lary, 664 

Past  perfect  (pluperfect)  subjv., 
formation,  234.  b 

Past  (imperfect)  subjv.,  formation, 

233-^ 

pater  familias,  decl.,  80.  a 

patior,  w.  inf.,  720.  I.^,  839. </ 

Patronymics,  2^2.. g 

pauper,  decl.,  148.  b 

pax,  decl.,  p.  46 

pecuniae,  gen.  w.  vbs.  of  condemn- 
ing, 337 

pelagus  (plur.  pelage),  gender,  87 

Penalty,  gen.  of,  337;  abl.  of,  473 

penates,  decl.,  xod.d 

per,  prep.,  276;  as  prefix,  294.  ^ ; 
w.  ace.  of  duration,  423  ;  w.  ace. 
of  persons  to   express    means, 

455 

Perceiving,  vbs.  of,  w.  ind.  disc,  885 

Perfect  infinitive,  formation,  237.  b ; 
sequence  after,  703 ;  w.  debui, 
oportuit,  etc.,  829.  N. ;  in  ex- 
clamations, 843 

Perfect  subjunctive,  after  primary 
tense,  698.  d\  after  secondary 
tense,  702 

Perfect  system,  209.  II 

Perfect  tense 

Formation :  personal  endings, 
217;  formation  of  stem,  222- 
224 ;  perf.  indie,  act.,  230.  a ; 
contracted  forms  of,  id.  i ,  2 ; 
perf.  indie,  pass.,  231;  perf. 
subjv.  act.,  234.  a  \  forms  of,  in 
-Sim,  id.  N.  i  ;  pass.,  id.  N.  2 ; 
perf.  inf.  act.,  237.  b.  \  ;  pass., 
id.  2 


396 


INDEX 


Syntax :  uses  of  perf .  indie,  (pres. 
perf.  and  past  absolute),  658 ; 
perf.  and  past  descript.  distin- 
guished, id.  l\.a\  special  uses, 
659,  660  ;  epistolary,  664  ;  perf. 
subjv.  in  prohibitions,  675 ;  perf. 
inf.  in  exclamations,  843 

perficio  ut,  737 

Pericles,  decl.,  112 

Periodic  structure  of  sentence,  936 

Periphrastic  conjugations,  definition 
and  formation,  249,  859,  860  ; 
paradigms,  250 ;  use  in  con- 
clusion of  conditions  contrary  to 
fact,  797.  b ;  in  ind.  questions, 
815 

Permission,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.,  720.  I 

Person,  70;  of  vbs.,  207,  215,  631  ; 
w.  subjs.  of  different  persons, 
636;  order  of  the  three  per- 
sons, id.  N. ;  agreement  w. 
antecedent  of  a  rel.,  637 

Personal  constr.  of  pass.,  w.  inf., 
840.  a 

Personal  endings,  defined,  215;  of 
indie,  and  subjv.,  216,  217; 
of  imv.,  218 

Personal  pronouns 

Forms  :  paradigms,  i  79,  1 80  ; 
emphatic  forms,  1 80.  a ;  re- 
duplicated forms,  id.  b ;  w.  cum 
enclitic,  id.  c ;  early  forms,  id.  d 
Syntax:  omitted  as  subj.,  318, 
511:  nos  used  for  ego,  id.  a ; 
third  person,  how  expressed, 
512;  not  used  in  gen.  to  express 
possession,  513;  objective  and 
partitive  forms,  514 

persuaded,  w.  dat,  376;  w.  dat  and 
ace,  380;  w.  subjv.,  720.  I 


Persuading,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  376; 
vv.  subjv.,  720.  I 

pessum  dare,  435 

peto,  w.  prep,  and  abl.,  414.  N. ;  w! 
subjv.,  720.  I 

ph,  th,  ch,  sound  of,  i  7 

Phonetic  changes,  42-57;  weaken- 
ing of  vowels,  43-45  ;  contrac- 
tion of  vowels,  46 ;  dropping 
of  vowels,  47  ;  changes  in  con- 
sonants, 48-55  ;  vowel  grada- 
tion, 56,  ^y 

Phrases,  defined,  301;  adjective  and 
adverbial  phrases,  302  ;  phrases 
w.  dat.,  377 

piget,  constr.  after,  363 

plus,  compar.,  160.  b 

Place,  whither,  428 ;  constr.  of  do- 
mus,  rus,  and  names  of  towns, 

430-433,  442,  443,  485-  ^-489; 
place  whence,  441 ;  place  where, 
485  ;  loc.  case,  486-488  ;  sum- 
mary of  place  constructions, 
491 

placeo,  w.  dat.,  376 

Placing,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after,  490 

Pleasing,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after, 
376 

Plenty  or  want,  gen.  of,  349,  350; 
abl.  of,  469.  d 

plenus,  constr.  after,  350 

Pleonasm,  950.  e 

Pluperfect,  see  Past  perfect 

Plural,  defect,  in  decl.  V,  1 25.  ^;  in 
names  of  persons,  126.  a  \  in 
names  of  materials,  id.  b\  in  ab- 
stract nouns,  id.  c ;  plur.  only, 
127;  plur.  in  poetry,  id.  N. ; 
plur.  different  from  sing,  in 
sense,  133 


INDEX 


397 


pluris.  plurimi,  gen.  of  value, 
34> 

plQs,  decl.,  151;  compar.,  158,  274  ; 
as  acx:.  of  degree,  426.  N.  i  ; 
without  quam,  450 

ponds,  defect.,  1 28.  b 

p5n5,  w.  abl.,  490 

per-,  prefix,  294.  b 

porticus.  gender,  1  20 

poscO,  w.  two  aces.,  413.  N. ;  w.  ace. 
and  abl,,  414.  N. 

Position,  expressed  by  ab  or  ex,  445  ; 
syllable  long  by,  967,  991 

Possession,  expressed  by  gen.,  328 ; 
by  dat.,  390 ;  by  habeo,  391 

Possessive  genitive,  328 ;  in  pred., 
330»  833- '' ;  dat.  of  reference 
used  instead,  385 

Possessive  pronouns  and  adjectives 
Forms,  184;  mi,  voc.  of  meus, 
id.  b\  emphatic  forms  in  -pte, 
id.r 
Syntax :  used  for  poss.  gen.,  329 ; 
for  objective  gen.,  355  ;  agree- 
ment, 525  ;  omitted,  526;  used 
substantively,  528;  w.  gen.  in 
apposition,  529;  normal  posi- 
tion, 919;  emphatic  position, 
934.  ^/,  g 

Possibility,  vbs.  of,  in  conclusion  of 
conditions  contrary  to  fact, 
797.  a 

possum,  conj.,  254;  in  conclusion 
of  conditions  contrary  to  fact, 
797.^ 

post,  adv.,  w.  abl.  of  measure  of  dif- 
ference, 477 ;  w.  quam,  747 

poet,  prep.,  use,  276;  as  prefix,  294.  a; 
in  comps.  w.  dat.,  382 

postefl,  in  enumerations,  591.  <2 


posterns,  compar.,  1 59 ;  meaning  in 
plur.,  id.  a 

Postpositive  conjunctions,  924 

postquam  (poateaquam),  in  temporal 
clauses,  745,  747, 748  ;  w.  clause 
instead  of  past  act.  part.,  852 

postrgmS,  in  enumerations,  591.  a 

postrgmus,  last  part  t?/*,  510 

postridig,  w.  gen.,  343.  N. 

postulO,  w.  ace.  and  abl.,  414.  N. 

Potential  subjunctive,  684;  force  of 
tenses,  685  ;  in  softened  asser- 
tions, 686.  a ;  of  vbs.  of  saying, 
believing,  etc.,  id.  b\  denoting 
possibility,  id.  r ;  as  conclusion 
of  condition,  687 

potior,  adj.,  compar.,  160.  a 

potior,  vb.,  w.  gen.,  366 ;  w.  abl., 
469.  a  ;  w.  ace,  id.  N.  2  ;  w. 
gerund  or  gerundive,  880.  c.  N. 

potis,  in  early  Latin,  1 60.  ^.  I 

potius.  compar.,  274 

potui,  w.  pres.  inf.,  829;  w.  perf. 
inf.,  id.  N. 

prae,  use,  277 ;  as  prefix,  294.  a ;  in 
comps.  w.  dat.,  382  ;  to  express 
a  preventing  cause,  465 

praecMO,  constr.  after,  382.  a 

praeceps,  decl.,  148. « 

Praenomina  and  their  abbreviations, 
1 34.  a 

praesgns,  241.  ^ 

praeter,  use,  276 ;  as  prefix,  294.  a ; 
in  comps.  w.  ace,  406.  b 

preci,  decl.,  p.  46 

Predicate,  defined,  297;  pred.  use 
of  part.,  861 

Predicate  or  adjunct  accusative,  4 1 6, 
417;  becomes  pred.  nom.  in 
pass.,  418 


398 


INDEX 


Predicate  adjective,  defined,  496,  c ; 
vb.  omitted,  id.  N.;  agreement, 
497,  502.  I.  a,  id.  2.  /^,  N.  I ;  in 
ace.  or  dat.,  834.  a ;  after  com- 
plementary inf.,  838 

Predicate  genitive,  330 

Predicate  noun,  defined,  305 ;  agree- 
ment, 306-308  ;  vbs.  used  w., 
309;  rel.  agreeing  w.,  553  ;  re- 
sult cl.  as,  after  mos  est,  iiis  est, 
etc.,  74 1  ;  in  ace.  or  dat.,  834.  a ; 
inf.  used  as  pred.  noun,  835  ; 
pred.  noun  after  inf.,  838 

Prefixes,  294  ;  separable,  id.  a  ;  in- 
separable, id.  b 

Prepositions,  assimilation  of,  52, 
53.  N. ;  derivation  of,  275  ;  w. 
ace,  276;  w.  abl.,277;  w.eith'er, 
278;  in  comps.,  294;  noun  w. 
prep,  instead  of  obj.  gen.,  355  ; 
in  comps.  w.  dat.,  382-384 ;  in 
comps.  of  vbs,  of  motion,  406.  b\ 
w.  ace.  of  place  whither,  428, 
429;  omitted,  430,  434;  w. 
gerund  and  gerundive,  878, 
879;  position,  917,  925;  fol- 
lowing their  case,  925.  (^ 

Present  conditions,  non-committal, 
785  ;  contrary  to  fact,  786 

Present  indicative,  formation,  229.^; 
general  use,  647;  historical  pres., 
648  ;  pres.  w.  dum,  id.  a ;  cona- 
tive  pres.,  649 ;  pres.  w.  iam  diii, 
etc.,  650 ;  annalistic  pres.,  65 1 ; 
pres.  used  for  fut.,  657 

Present  infinitive,  formation,  act.  and 
pass.,  237.  « :  w.  debui,  oportuit, 
etc.,  829 ;  expressing  past  time 
in  ind.  disc,  830;  posse  w.  fut. 
meaning,  887.  I.  i^.  N.  i 


Present  participle,  dec!.,  149;  forma- 
tion, 240.^;  general  use,  847.^; 
denoting  attempted  action,  849; 
pres.  pass,  part.,  how  supplied, 
851  ;  pres.  part,  as  attrib.  adj., 
855  ;  used  for  phrase  or  clause, 
861  ;  w.  video,  audio,  etc.,  for 
inf.,  864 

Present  perfect,  see  Perfect  tense 

Present  stem,  formation,  219-221 

Present  subjunctive  after  a  second- 
ary tense,  702 

Present  system,  209.  I 

Preventing,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after, 
720.  Ill 

Price  or  value,  abl.  of,  470 ;  gen.  of, 
471  ;  constr.  w.  muto,  472  ;  w. 
vbs.  of  condemning,  473 

pridie,  w.  gen.,  343-  N. 

Primary  tenses,  of  indie,  692 ;  of 
subjv.,  693 

primo,  primum,  591 

primus,  compar.,  i6o.«;  meaning 
begimiiiig  o/]  510 

Principal  clause,  defined,  300;  in 
ind.  disc,  887 

Principal  parts,  act.,  212;  pass.,  213; 
fist  of,  267 

prior,  compar.,  160.  a 

priusquam  and  antequam,  in  tem- 
poral clauses,  7S7-7^^ 

pro,  use,  277  ;  pro,  prod-,  as  prefix, 
294. « 

prodeo,  conj.,  259.  ^ 

prohibeo,  constr.  after,  720.  Ill,  a 

Prohibitions,  expressed  by  jussive 
subjv.,  675 ;  by  noli,  676.  a  ;  by 
cave  (cave  ne),  fac  ne,  id.  b ;  by 
imv.,  689,  690;  in  ind.  disc, 
887.  III.  « 


INDEX 


399 


Pronominal  adjectives,  202;  alius 
and  alter,  578-580;  caeri,58i ; 
reliqui,  582 

Pronouns,  classified,  177 

Fonns :  personal,  179,  180;  re- 
flexive, 1 8 1  - 1 83  ;  possessive, 
184;  demonstrative,  185-191  ; 
intensive,  192;  relative,  193, 
1 94  ;  interrogative,  1 95- 1 99 ; 
indefinite,  200 ;  pronominal 
adjs.,  202 ;  contained  in  verb 
ending,  215 
Syntax  :  personal,  5 1 1  -5 1 4 ;  re- 
flexive, 515-524;  possessive 
525-529;  demonstrative,  530- 
547;  intensive,  548-550;  rela- 
tive, 551-565;  interrogative, 
566-568;  indefinite,  569-577; 
pronominal  adjs.,  578-582; 
position,  918-922 

Pronunciation,  vowels,  14;  diph- 
thongs, 15;  consonants,  16; 
ph,  th,  ch,  1 7  ;  comps.  of  iaci5, 
19;  doubled  consonants,  20 

prope,  adv.,  compar.,  274 

prope.  prep.,  use,  276 

Proper  names,  plur.  of,  1 26.^? ;  names 
of  citizens,  134;  of  women, 
135  ;  of  slaves,  136 

propinquus,  compar.,  160.^: 

propior,  compar.,  1 60.  a\  constr.  after, 
401 

propius,  compar.,  274 ;  constr.  after, 
401 

proprius.  w.  gen.,  351  ;  w.  dat,  397 

Prosody,  see  Meters  and  verse  forms 

pr5sum.  conj.,  253 

Proviso,  expressed  by  rel.  cl., 
730.  II.  N. ;  w.  dum,  mode, etc., 
811 


proximS,  compar.,  274 ;  constr.  after, 

401 
proximus,  compar.,  160. a;  constr. 

after,  397.  N.,  401 
-pte  (enclitic),  1 84.  c 
pubSs,  decl.,  148,  b 
pudet,  impers.,  266;  constr.  after, 

363,  364 

puer.  decl.,  85 

pulcher,  decl.,  142;  compar.,  155 

puppis,  decl.,  102.^: 

Purpose,  adverbial  clauses  of,  713; 
inserted  parenthetically,  714; 
rel.  clauses  of,  715-718;  w. 
dignus,  etc.,  717;  w.  quo,  718; 
substantive  clauses  of,  719-725; 
object  clauses  of,  w.  vbs.  of  ad- 
vising, etc.,  720. 1 ;  omission  of 
ut,  id.  //,  722  ;  object,  w.  vbs.  of 
fearing,  720.  II ;  w.  vbs.  of  hin- 
dering, etc.,  id.  Ill  ;  w.  vbs. 
of  doubting,  id.  IV;  subject 
clauses  of,  w.  pass,  vbs.,  721 ;  w. 
licet,  etc.,  722;  w.  reliquum  est, 
etc.,  723  ;  appositive  clauses  of, 
724 ;  purpose  expressed  by  inf., 
720.  d,  842  ;  by  fut.  part.,  868, 
869 ;  by  gerund  and  gerundive, 
875,  878 ;  by  supine,  882.  I ; 
conspectus  of  purpose  construc- 
tions, p.  325,  ftn. 

Purpose  or  end,  dat.  of,  395 

putfi.  quantity  of  a,  959 

Putting  on,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after. 
406.  d 

qu,    8U,    gu,   sound   of,   before  a 

vowel,  16,  954.  N. 
quaerd.  w.  ab.  ex,  or  de,  414.  N. ; 

w.  subjv.,  813 


400 


INDEX 


quaeso,  defect,  265.^ 

qualis,  decl.,  199;  use,  568 

Quality,  gen.  of,  338 ;  abl.  of,  466 

quam,  in  comparison,  446 ;  w.  two 
comparatives,  508  ;  w,  superla- 
tive, 509 ;  quam  ut,  quam  qui, 
w.subjv.,  733 

quamquam,  although^  806 ;  andyet, 
807 

quamvis,  use,  809 

quando,  interrog,,  625  ;  causal,  769 

quanti,  gen.  of  value  and  price, 
34i.N.,« 

Quantity,  defined,  marks  of ,  25, 95 1 ; 
of  syllables,  27-32,  966-969; 
of  vowels,  33,  34,  953-965  ;  in 
final  syllables,  956-965 

quanto  .  .  .  tanto,  denoting  measure 
of  difference,  476 

quantum,  as  ace.  of  degree,  426.  N.  i 

quantus,  5  68 

quasi,  w.  primary  tenses  of  subjv., 
803 

quasso,  intensive,  290.  b 

-que,  enclitic,  601  ;  -que  .  .  .  -que, 
604;  in  enumerations,  605 

que5,  conj.,  260 

Questions  and  answers,  620-630; 
real  questions,  620.  a  ;  rhetori- 
cal, id.  b ;  direct,  62 1 . «;  indirect, 
id.  b ;  "  yes  "  or  "  no,"  623,  624; 
questions  of  detail  or  circum- 
stance, 625,  626;  alternative, 
627,  628  ;  answers,  629,  630  ; 
exclamatory  questions,  w.  ut  and 
subjv.,  843.  a  ;  questions  in  ind. 
disc,  887.11 

qui,  abl.,  193.^,  201 

qui,  indefinite,  200  ;  decl.,  id.  b 

qui,  interrogative,  197 


qui,  relative,  see  Relative  pronouns 

quia,  causal  conj.,  768 ;  non  quia,  770 

quicquam,  as  ace.  of  degree,  426.  N.  i 

quicum,  193.^ 

quicumque,  decl.,  194. « 

quidanijdecl.,  200, 6";  use,  572 ;  mean- 
ing a  sort  of,  id.  a  ;  intensive, 
id.N. 

quidem,  use,  592 ;  ne  .  .  .  quidem, 
id.  a ;  equidem,  id.  N. ;  position 
of  quidem,  923 

quilibet,  200 

quin,  w.  vbs.  of  hindering,  etc., 
720.  Ill ;  w.  negatived  vbs.  of 
doubt,  id.  IV ;  nulla  causa  est 
quin,  725  ;  for  qui  non,  728 ; 
facere  non  possum  quin,  735.  N. 

quippe,  w.  rel.  cl.  of  cause,  730. 1 

Quirites,  decl.,  106.  d 

quis,  qui,  indefinite,  200 ;  decl.,  id.  ^; 
early  forms,  id./;  use,  570 

quis,  qui,  interrogative,  decl.,  196; 
early  forms,  197.  b ;  w.  cum  en- 
clitic, id.  c\  emphatic  forms, 
id.  ^;  use,  566;  quis  est  qui, 
w.  subjv.,  727 

quis,  for  quibus,  1 93.  b 

quispiam,  200,  d 

quisquam, 200;  decl.,id.^;  use, 573; 
used  for  quis,  id.  N. 

quisque,  decl.,  200;  use,  576;  w. 
iinus,  id.  c ;  position,  920 

quisquis,  1 94.  /^ 

quivis,  decl.,  200 

quo,  of  early  Latin,  changed  to  cu,  \2.b 

quo,  by  ivhich,  in  cl.  of  purpose,  718; 
quo  minus  w.  vbs.  of  hindering, 
720.  Ill ;  non  qu5  in  causal  cl., 
770 

quo,  whither,  in  cl.  of  purpose,  7  r  6 


INDEX 


401 


qn5  .  .  .  eC,  denoting  measure  of  dif- 
ference, 476 

quoad.  <w  long  as,  762;  until,  w. 
indie,  764:  w.  subjv.,  765 

quod,  in  causal  cl.,  768 ;  non  quod, 
770;  in  subst.  cl.  of  fact,  used 
as  subj.,  822 ;  as  app.,  823 ;  as 
ace.  of  respect,  824;  equiva- 
lent constrs.,  825 

quod  sciam,  restrictive,  729 

quoius  (Cuius),  quoi  (cui),  193.  c 

quom  (sec  cum),  1 2.  ^.  N. 

quOminus,  w.  vbs.  of  hindering, 
720.  Ill 

quoniam.  in  causal  cl.,  769 

quoque,  use,  588 ;  position,  923 

quot.  indecl.,  152;  use,  568 

quu,  for  cu.  1 2.  b 

quum  (see  cum),  1 2.  b.  N. 

r,  pronunciation,  16;  for  s  between 

two  vowels,  49 
rastnim,  plur.  in  -a  or  -i,  132 
ratiOne,  as  abl.  of  manner,  461 
ratus,  as  pres.  part.,  848 
re-,  red-,  inseparable  prefix,  294.  b 
Reading  of  verse,  993.  994 
Reciprocal  action,  inter  nos,   inter 

v5s.  inter  se,  524 
recordor,  constr.  after,  359 
Reduplicated  perfect,  223.  e 
Reduplicating  class  of  verbs,  Z2.\.f 
Reference,  dative  of.  385  ff. 
rgfert  and  interest,  w.  gen.  or  posses- 
sive pron.,  352  ;  other  constrs., 
id.  N. 
Reflexive  pronouns,  defined,  181 
Forms:   dccl.,    182,    183;    sSsS, 
183.  </;    emphatic   forms,  id.; 
w.  cum  enclitic,  id. ;  8€d,  183.  b 


Syntax :  ^'eneral  rule,  515;  first 
and  second  persons,  516;  third 
person,  517;  direct  reflexives, 
5 1 9;  indirect,  5 20-523 ;  recipro- 
cal action,  524;  reflexive  pron. 
as  subj.  of  inf.,  838.  a,  887.  I.  a 

Refleicive  verbs  (Greek  middle)  w. 
ace,  406.  d 

regO,  conj.,  244 

Regular  comparisonofadjs.,  1 54-1 57 

Regular  verbs,  210-246 

Relationship,  nouns  of,  282.^ 

Relative  adverbs,  565  ;  w.  clauses 
of  purpose,  716;  of  result,  735 

Relative  clauses,  defined,  551;  intro- 
duced by  rel.  advs.,  565,  716, 
735;  denoting  purpose,  71,5; 
description,  726-730;  cause, 
730.  I ;  concession,  id.  II ;  pro- 
viso, id.  N. ;  condition,  801; 
rel.  clauses  in  ind.  disc.,  888- 
897  ;  equivalent  to  prin.  clauses 
in  ind.  disc,  896 ;  position  of 
relative  in  rel.  cl.,  922 

Relative  pronouns,  defined,  551 
Forms  :  decl.,  193  ;  abl.  form  qui, 
id.  a ;    quis   for  quibus,    id.  /^ ; 
early  forms,  id.  c ;  w.  cum  en- 
clitic, id.  ^;  indefinite  relatives, 

'94 
Syntax :  agreement,  w.  one  ante- 
cedent, 552;  w.  two  or  more, 
id.  a\  w.  pred.  noun,  553;  by 
attraction,  554;  according  to 
sense,  555  ;  referring  to  clause, 
556;  antecedent  omitted,  557; 
repeated,  558;  standing  in  rel. 
cl.,  559;  superlative  belonging 
to  antecedent  standing  in  rel. 
cl.,    560;   rel.   meaning  such^ 


402 


INDEX 


561  ;  as,  562 ;  never  omitted, 
563  ;  used  as  connecting  word, 
564,  913.  «;  person  of  vb. 
agreeing  w.  antecedent,  637; 
position  of  rel.,  922 

relinquitur  ut,  739 

relinquO,  w.  fut  pass,  part.,  869 

reliqui,  582 

reliquum  est  ut,  723,  739 

reliquus,  rest  ^,510 

Remembering,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after, 
358 

Reminding,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after, 
361,  362 

reminiscor.  constr.  after,  358.^ 

reposco,  w.  two  aces.,  413.  N. 

requies,  decl.,  1 30.  e 

res,  decl.,  123 

Resisting,  vbs.  of,  constr.  after,  376 

resists,  w.  dat.,  376 

Respect,  ace.  of,  427 ;  abl.  of,  478 ; 
quod  clause  used  as  ace.  of 
respect,  824 ;  respect  denoted 
by  supine  in  -u,  882.  II 

restat  ut,  739 

restis,  decl.,  102.  ^ 

Restrictive  clauses,  quod  sciam,  etc., 
729 

Result  clauses,  perf.  subjv.  in,  used 
after  a  secondary  tense,  702; 
adverbial,  vv.  ut  or  ut  non,  732 ; 
ut  nemo,  ut  nihil,  etc.,  id.  a ; 
w.  quam  ut,  quam  qui,  after  a 
comparative,  733 ;  equivalent 
to  a  proviso,  734 ;  relative,  735 ; 
facere  non  possum  quin,  fieri 
non  potest  quin,  id.  N. ;  sub- 
stantive, 736-741  ;  object,  after 
facio,  etc.,  737;  subject,  after 
factum  est,  etc.,  738  ;  after  fit. 


accidit,  etc.,  739;  after  fore 
(futurum  esse),  740 ;  as  apposi- 
tive  or  predicate  noun,  741 

rete,  decl.,  1 04.  a 

retro,  as  prefix,  294.  a 

rex,  decl.,  94 

Rhetorical  effects,  938-949 

Rhetorical  order  of  words,  933,  934 

Rhetorical  questions,  620.  b,  678, 
679  ;  in  ind.  disc,  887.  II,  N.  2 

Rhotacism,  49 

Rhythmical  reading  of  verse,  980, 

993.  994 
ritii,  abl.  of  manner,  461 
Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  67.  a 
rogo,  constr.  after,  413,  415 
Roman  calendar,  1 006-101 2 
Roman  names  of  persons,  134-136 
Roman  pronunciation,  13-20 
Root  class  of  verbs,  221.^ 
Roots,  61 

rSstrum,  rostra,  133 
riiri,  loc,  488 
riis,  decl.,  p.  46;  prep,  omitted  w., 

430,  442 

s,  pronunciation,  1 6 ;  changed  to  r, 

49 ;  substituted  for  d  or  t,  53. « ; 

d  or  t  dropped  before,  55.^; 

suffix  forming  the  perf.  stem, 

223.  d 
sacer,  compar.,  160,  b 
saepe.  compar.,  274;  position,  923 
salutaris,  compar.,  1 60.  c 
salve,  defect.,  265.  ^ 
Samnites,  decl.,  106.^ 
sane,  in  answers,  629.  a 
satis,  compar.,  274;  comps.  of,  w. 

dat.,  378;  used  as  a  noun,  586 
satisfaciS,  w.  dat.,  378 


INDEX 


403 


satur.  decl.,  142.  b 

Saying,  vbs.  of,  w.  ind.  disc.,  885 ; 
vb.  of  saying  implied,  id.  a 

Scansion.  980,  993,  994 

8Cin,  for  scisne,  41.  N. 

aciO,  imv.  of,  691 

-scO,  class  of  vbs.  in,  22 1 .  ^ ;  inceptive 
suffi.x,  290.  a 

BCribO,  constr.  after,  373 

88-,  sM-,  inseparable  prefix,  294.  b 

Second  conjugation,  pres.  stem, 
220. b\  perf.stem, 222, 223.^-y; 
part,  stem,  225, 226 ;  prin.  parts 
and  paradigms,  243 ;  deriva- 
tion of  vbs.  of,  289 

Second  declension  of  nouns,  82-89 ; 
gender,  83 ;  exceptions  to  gen- 
der, 86.  87  ;  loc,  88.  a  ;  gen.  of 
nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium,  id.  b ; 
voc.  of  filius,  etc.,  id.  c ;  gen. 
plur.  in  -um,  id.  d\  Greek  nouns, 
89 

Secondary  object,  412,  413 

Secondary  tenses,  of  indie,  692 ;  of 
subjv.,  693 ;  used  after  perf. 
inf.,  703.  See  also  Sequence 
of  tenses 

secundum,  use,  276 

securis,  decl.,  102.^ 

secus,  indecl.  noun,  1 28.  ^ ;  as  idio- 
matic ace.,  438 

sed,  use,  612 

sM-.  see  se- 

Selling.  vbs.  of,  w.  gen.,  341,  </ ;  w. 
abl.,  470 

s^mentis.  decl.,  102.  r 

Semi-deponent  verbs,  204. «,  248 

Semivowels.  9 

seniti.  senituis.  senituos,  gen. 
forms  in  decl.  I\',  xix.a 


senex,  dech,  109;  compar.,  160.  <:.  i 

Sentences,  defined  and  classified, 
296;  simple,  298;  compound, 
299;  complex,  300;  building 
of,  935-937 

Separation,  dat.  of,  389 ;  abl.  of,  440 

Sequence  of  tenses,  defined,  694; 
general  rule,  695 ;  tables  of,  696 
and  p.  268 ;  sequence  after  pres. 
perf.,  699;  after  historical  pres., 
700;  in  a  general  truth,  701; 
use  of  perf.  or  pres.  subjv. 
after  a  secondary  tense,  702; 
sequence  after  perf.  inf.,  703 ; 
in  conditions  contrary  to  fact, 
704 ;  sequence  of  subjv.  depend- 
ing on  a  subjv,,  705  ;  sequence 
after  inf.,  supine,  gerund,  or 
part.,  706 

sequitur  ut,  723,  739 

sequor,  conj.,  247 

Service,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  397 

Serving,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  376 

serviO,  w.  dat.,  376 

seu,  see  sive 

Short  syllables,  28 

Short  vowels,  34.  b,  955 

8i  (6  si),  w.  optative  subjv.,  683  ;  use 
of  si  and  its  comps.,  77S-777 ; 
sindn  and  nisi,  775 :  si,  whether^ 
w.  ind.  quest.  814.  r 

sic,  589 

siem,  sigs,  etc.,  241.  < 

Signs  of  mood  and  tense,  227  ff. 

-sim,  old  ending  of  perf.  subjv., 
234.  a.  N.  I  ;  adverbs  in,  272.  b 

similis,  compar.,  1 56 ;  w.  gen.,  351 ; 
w.  dat.,  397  ;  prevailing  usage, 
398.^ 

Simois,  decl.,  1 1 2 


404 


INDEX 


Simple  sentence,  298 

simul,  simul  atque  (ac),  in  temporal 

clauses,  745 
sin,  776 
sine,  277 
Singular,  nouns  used  only  in,  1 26 ; 

nouns  defect,  in,  127 
sinistra,  without  prep.,  485.  « 
sino,  constr.  after,  839.  d 
-sio,  noun  suffix,  284.  b 
sis  (si  vis),  41.  N. 
sitis,  decl.,  102.  b 
sive  (seu),  609 ;    sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive 

(seu),  610;  or  if,  777 
Slaves,  names  of,  136 
Smell,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace,  409 
-so,  vbs.'in,  290.  b 
-so  (-SSO),  old  ending  of  fut.  perf., 

230.  c.  N.  2 
sodes  (si  audes),  41.  N. 
sol,  decl.,  p.  46 
soleo,  semi-deponent,  248 
solitus,  as  pres.  part.,  848 
solus,  decl.,  1 43 ;  w.  rel.  cl.  of  descrip- 
tion, 727 
Sonants,  6 

-sor,  noun  suffix,  284.  a 
sospes,  decl.,  148.  b 
Sounds,  pp.  I -1 4 
Source,  expressed  by  abl.,  451 
Space,  extent  of,  expressed  by  ace, 

420,  421 
Sparing,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat,  376 
species,  decl.,  12^.  a 
Specification,  see  Respect 
Spelling,  variations  in,  1 2.  a-d 
spes,  decl.,  125.  ^ 
Spirants  or  fricatives,  8.  d 
Spondee,    975 ;     spondaic    verse, 

995.^ 


sponte,  defect.,  1 28.  ^ ;  as  abl.  of 
manner,  461 

statuo,  constr.  after,  490 

Stems,  defined,  62;  how  formed, id.; 
a-stems,  decl.  I,  77-79;  o-stems, 
decl.  II,  82-85  ;  decl.  Ill,  mute 
stems,  92-95  :  liquid  stems,  96, 
97;  nasal  stems,  98,  99 ;  i-stems, 
100-104;  mixed  i-stems,  105- 
108;  u-stems,  decl.  IV,  117- 
119;  e-stems,  decl.  V,  1 22, 1 23  ; 
adj.  stems,  decls.  I  and  II, 
139-142;  adj.  stems,  decl.  Ill, 
145-151;  tenses  of  verbs  ar- 
ranged by  stems,  209;  stems 
of  verbs,  212;  pres.  stem,  219- 
221 ;  perf.  stem,  222-224;  part, 
stem,  225,  226 

Striving,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.,  720.  I 

studeo,  w.  dat.,  376;  w.  inf.,  837, 839.  <^ 

su,  sound  of,  w.  following  vowel, 
16,  954.  N. 

suadeo,  w.  dat.,  376 

sub,  prep.,  use,  278.^;  as  prefix, 
294.  a;  in  comps.  w.  dat.,  382  ; 
in  comps.  w.  ace,  406.  b.;  w. 
ace.  of' place,  428;  in  expres- 
sions of  time,  495 

subeo,  w.  ace,  382.  ^ 

Subject,  defined,  297;  implied,  id.  a\ 
group  of  words  as  subj.,  id.  b ; 
subj.  of  inf.,  419;  vb.  agrees  w., 
631-633;  two  or  more  subjs., 
634,  635;  subj.  omitted,  639; 
in  ind.  disc,  887.  I.  a;  normal 
position  of  subj.,  912;  emphatic 
position,  934.  a 

Subject  clauses,  purpose,  721-723; 
result,  738-740 ;  w.  quod,  822  ; 
inf.,  833,  834 


TNOFX 


405 


Subjunctive  mood,  665 

Forms :  tenses,  206,  232;  forma- 
tion of  prcs.,  233.  a ;  past,  id.  b ; 
perf.,  234.  a  \  past  perf.,  id.  b 

Syntiix,  direct  discourse :  origin 
of  subjv.,  665.  ftn.  I  ;  tenses 
and  their  meaning,  666-669; 
classificationofusesinindepend. 
sentences,  670 ;  volitive,  67 1  ; 
hortatory,  672;  jussive,  673- 
675;  concessive,  677  ;  delibera- 
tive, 678;  optative,  680-683; 
potential,  684-688 ;  classifica- 
tion of  uses  in  subord.  clauses, 
71  I ;  purpose,  712;  description, 
726;  rel.  cl.  of  cause  or  con- 
cession, 730 ;  result,  73 1  ;  cum 
temporal,  753;  cum  causal.  754; 
cum  concessive,  755;  w.  ante- 
quam  and  priusquam,  759;  w. 
dam,  donee,  quoad,  765 ;  causal 
cl.  w.  quod,  quia,  etc.,  768.  h ; 
conditions,  786,  789,  793,  800; 
comparison,  803 ;  concession, 
808-8 1  o ;  proviso,  811;  ind. 
quest.,  812 

Syntax,  indirect  discourse:  de- 
liberative, 887.  \\.a\  volitive 
or  optative,  88 7.  Ill;  in  subord. 
clauses,  tenses,  889,  890;  con- 
dition contrary  to  fact,  89 1 ,  900 ; 
depending  on  perf.  inf.,  893  ; 
pres.  or  perf.  after  secondary 
tenses,  894;  in  conditional  sen- 
tences, 898-904 ;  implied  ind. 
disc,  905,  906 ;  subj.  by  attrac- 
tion, 907-909 
Subordinate  clauses,  defined,  300, 
303 ;  classified,  304, 709;  devel- 
opment, 708 ;  use,  in  dir.  disc., 


710-825;  in  ind.  disc.,  888- 
895 ;  rel.  cl.  equivalent  to  declar. 
sentence,  896;  conditions  in 
ind.  disc.,  898-904 :  implied 
ind.  disc.,  905,  906;  subjv.  by 
attraction,  907-909;  arrange- 
ment of  subord.  clauses,  931, 
932 

Substantive  clauses,  defined,  304.  a, 
709.  Ill;  development,  708 ; 
purpose,  719-725;  result,  ^36- 
74r  ;  ind.quest.,  81 2-820:  quod 
cl.  of  fact.,  821-825  ;  inf.,  832- 
840 

Substantive  use,  of  adjs.,  503-506 ; 
of  possessives,  528  ;  of  inf.,  845 

Substantive  verb  sum,  310 

Substitution  in  verse,  977 

subter,  use.  278.^ 

suetus,  w.  inf.,  841 

sui  and  suus,  decl.,  183,  184;  use 
as  dir.  reflex.,  519;  as  ind. 
reflex.,  520-523;  when  not 
used,  521.  N.;  ipse  used  in- 
stead, 522  ;  suus  in  subj.  re- 
ferring to  pred.,  523  ;  inter  se, 
524 ;  sui  w.  gerundive,  876 

sum,  conj.,  241  ;  as  copula,  305.^?: 
meaning  exist,  310  ;  w.  dat.  of 
possessor,  390  ;  omitted,  640 ; 
position,  927 

summus,  compar.,  159;  top  of ^  510 

sunt  qui,  w.  subjv.,  727 

supellex,  decl.,  109.^ 

super,  use,  278.  b  \  as  prefix,  294.  a ; 
in  comps.  w.  dat.,  382 

superior,  compar.,  159 

Superlative,  suffix,  1 54 ;  w.  force  of 
tvrv,  id,  N.;  in  -rimus,  155;  in 
-limus,  1 56 ;  w.  maxime,  1 62 ; 


4o6 


INDEX 


strengthened  by  longe,  quam, 
unus,  vel,  509 ;  denoting  part 
of,  510;  w.  quisque,  576.  <^ 

superstes,  decl.,  148.  <^ 

supenis,  compar.,  159;  superi,  id.  ^ 

Supine,  defined,  881 
Formation^  239 

Sytttax :  in  -um,  after  vbs.  of  mo- 
tion, 882.  I ;  w.  an  obj.,  id.  a\ 
w.  iri  to  form  fut.  pass,  inf., 
id.  N. ;  in  -ii,  882.  II ;  not  used 
w.  obj,,  id.  a  ;  common  supines 
in  -u,  id.  b 

suppetias  ire,  venire,  etc.,  435 

supra,  use,  276;  as  prefix,  294.^ 

Surds,  6 

-surio,  verb  suffix,  290.  d 

-sus,  noun  suffix,  284.  b 

sus,  decl.,  109 

suscenseo,  w.  dat,  376 

suscipio,  w.  fut.  pass,  part  express- 
ing purpose,  869 

suus,  see  sui 

Syllaba  anceps,  984 

Syllables,  rules  for  division  of,  21, 
22  ;  closed  and  open,  23;  ultima, 
penult,  antepenult,  24;  long 
and  short,  25-32,  966-969 

Synaeresis  or  synizesis,  988 

Synesis,  w.  adjs.,  501  ;  w.  vbs.,  633 ; 
defined,  950./" 

Synizesis  or  synaeresis,  988 

Syntactic  compounds,  292.  a 

Syntax,  295-950 

Systole,  989 

t,  sound,  16;    changed  to  s,  53. «:; 

dropped  before  s,  55.^2 
taedet,   impers.,   266 ;    w.  aca  and 

gen.,  363 


talis  ut,  etc.,  732 

tarn,  use,  589 ;  correlative  w.  quam, 
id.  N. 

tamen,  615 

tametsi,  althoiigh,  806;  even  if,  808 

tamquam,  tamquam  si,  as  if,  803 

tanti,  gen.  of  value,  341.  N. ;  of 
price,  id.  a 

tanto,  following  quanto,  476 

tantum,  as  ace.  of  degree,  426.  N.  i 

-tas,  noun  suffix,  282. /J  283 

Taste,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace,  409 

Teaching,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  413 ; 
constr.  in  pass.,  415 

tempero,  w.  dat.,  376 

Temporal  clauses,  replaced  by  abl. 
abs.,  484..^  ;  defined,  742  ;  clas- 
sified, 743 ;  general  rule  for 
mood,  744  ;  w.  postquam,  etc., 
745-748  ;  w.  cum,  749-756 ;  w. 
antequam  and  priusquam,  757- 
761  ;  w.  dum,  donee,  etc.,  762- 
766;  in  general  conditions, 
800.  a 

Tenses,  names,  206;  systems,  209 
Forms  :  indie,  229-331  ;  subjv., 
232-234;  imv.,  235  ;  inf.,  237; 
part.,  240 
Syjitax :  tenses  of  indie,  use  of, 
644-664;  epistolary  tenses,  664; 
tenses  of  subjv.,  use  of,  666- 
669 ;  classification  of  tenses, 
692,  693  ;  sequence  of,  defined, 
694 ;  general  rule  for,  695 ;  table 
of,  696 ;  illustrations,  p.  268 ; 
special  rules  for,  698 ;  peculiari- 
ties of,  699-707;  tenses  of  inf., 
828-831;  of  part.,  847-849; 
tenses  of  inf.  in  ind.  disc,  887. 
l.b 


INDEX 


407 


tenus.  w.  abl.,  277.4  ;   position,  925 

-ter.  adverbs  in,  270.  b 

-ternus,  adj.  suffix,  288 

terra,  abl.  without  prep.,  485.  <{ 

tCtC,  emphatic  pron.,  1 80.  b 

th,  sound  of,  i  7 

Than,  how  expressed.  446 

That  of,  not  expressed  in  Latin,  334 

The  .  .  .  the,  how  expressed,  476 

Thematic  and  athematic  vbs.,  251 
and  ftn.  i 

Thematic  vowel  ^j^  in  vbs.,  221, 
229.  a.  2  and  3 

Thesis  and  arsis,  979 

Thinking,  vbs.  of,  w.  ind.  disc.,  885 

Third  conjugation,  pres.  stem,  221  ; 
perf.  stem,  223.  b-ir\  part,  stem, 
225,  226;  prin.  parts  and  para- 
digms, 244  ;  derivation  of  vbs. 
of,  2S9,  290.  a,  fi.  I 

Third  declension  of  nouns,  90-1 1 6 ; 
mute  stems,  92-95 ;  liquid 
stems,  96,  97  ;  nasal  stems,  98, 
99;  pure  i-stems,  1 01 -104; 
mixed  i-stems,  105-108;  irreg. 
nouns,  109;  loc.,  iio;  Greek 
nouns,  1 1  i-i  12;  gender,  1 13- 
116 

Though,  see  Although 

Threatening,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat,  376 

-tia.  noun  suffix,  282._/",  283 

-tiSs,  noun  suffix,  283 

tigris,  decl.,  1 1 2 

-tim  or  -aim,  adverbs  in,  272.  b 

Time,  duration  of,  422-425;  time 
before  or  after,  477 ;  time  de- 
noted by  abl.  abs.,  480;  time 
when,  492. 1 ;  time  within,  id.  2  ; 
time  in  Lat.  corresponding  to 
place  in  £ng.,  494 


Time  clauses,  sec  Temf)oral  clauses 

timed,  constr.  after,  720.  II 

-timus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  // 

-tinus,  adj.  suffix,  288 

-tiO,  noun  suffix,  284.  b 

-tite,  vb.  suffix,  290.  b 

-tium,  noun  suffix,  282./" 

Tmesis,  950.  j^,  992 

-to,  class  of  verbs  in,  221.  </;  vb. 
suffix,  290.  b 

-to,  -sO,  -itO,  -titO,  vb.  suffixes,  290.  b 

-tor  (-sor),  -trix,  suffix  of  nouns  de- 
noting agency,  284.  a ;  such 
nouns  used  as  adjs.,  506.  b 

tot,  indecl.  adj.,  152 

totidem,  indecl.  adj.,  152 

tOtus,  decl.,  143;  nouns  w.,  in  abl. 
without  a  prep.,  485.  ^ 

Toward,  to  the  vicinity  of,  in  the 
vicinity  of,  how  expressed,  43 1 

Towns,  names  of,  gender,  67.  ^ ;  as 
place  to  which,  430,  431  ;  as 
place  from  which.  442  ;  as  place 
where,  in  abl.,  485.  a ;  in  loc., 
486,  487 

-tra,  noun  suffix,  284.  c.  i 

trddO,  w.  fut.  pass.  part,  expressing 
purpose,  869 

trans,  use,  276;  as  prefix,  294. a; 
in  comps.  w.  ace,  406.  b ;  in 
comps,  w.  two  aces.,  412 

Transitive  verbs,  usually  intrans., 
380 ;  made  intrans.  by  com- 
position, 382.  2  ;  made  capable, 
by  composition,  of  governing 
an  ind.  obj.,  id.  3  ;  w.  ace,  404 

Trees,  names  of,  gender,  67.  b 

tr6s,  decl.,  166.  b 

tribus.  gender,  120;  decl.,  121.  c 

-trix,  noun  suffix,  284.  a 


408 


INDEX 


Trochee,  975  ;  trochaic  verse,  976 

-trum,  noun  suffix,  284.  c 

tu,  decl.,  180;  use,  51 1' 

-tudo,  noun  suffix,  283 

tui,  w.  gerundive,  876 

turn,  in  enumerations,  591.^;  turn 
vero,  613.  N. 

-turn,  noun  suffix,  282.  b 

-tura,  noun  suffix,  284.  b 

-turio  (-surio),  verb  suffix,  290.  d 

-turnus,  adj.  suffix,  288 

turris,  decl.,  102 

-tus,  adj.  suffix,  285.  b\  noun  suffix, 
284.  b ;  adverbs  in,  272.  c 

tus,  decl.,  p.  46 

-tus,  noun  suffix,  2?>2.f 

tussis,  decl.,  102 

tute,  tutemet,  1 80,  ^ 

Two  accusatives,  dir.  obj,  and  sec- 
ondary obj.,  412-415  ;  dir.  obj. 
and  adjunct  ace,  416-418 

Two  datives,  395 

U  (v),  2.  b ;  for  earlier  0,  1 2.  a-c ; 
changed  to  i,  id.  ^;  sound,  14; 
as  a  cons,  after  g,  q,  s,  and  in 
verse,  16,  954.  N.,  991  ;  suffix 
of  perf.,  223.  r;  quantity  when 
final,  963 

U-stems,  decl.  IV,  11 7-1 21 

uber,  decl.,  148.  b.  N. 

ubi,  used  as  a  noun,  586;  in  pur- 
pose cl.,  716  ;  in  result  cl.,  735  ; 
in  temporal  cl.,  745,  746,  748; 
in  general  condition,  800.  a 

ubicumque,  in  temporal  cl.  express- 
ing general  condition,  746, 800.  <« 

-ubus,  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  decl. 
IV,  121.  c 

-ud,  in  abl.  sing.,  decl.  IV,  i2\.f 


ui,  diphthong,  sound,  1 5 

-uis  (uos),  in  gen.,  decl.  IV,  121.  a 

uUus,  decl.,  143;  use,  573 

ulterior,  compar.,  \6o.a 

ultimus,  lasl  part  ^510 

ultra,  use,  276 

-ulus,  diminutive  ending,  282.^; 
verbal  adj.  suffix,  287.  b 

-um,  for  -arum,  80.  d\  for  -orum, 
88.^;  for -uum,  \2\.b 

unde,  in  purpose  cl.,  716;  in  result 
cl.,  735 

Undertaking,  vbs.  of,  w.  fut.  pass, 
part,  expressing  purpose,  869 

unus,  decl.,  143;  w.  superl.,  509; 
w.  quisque,  576,  ^ 

unus  qui,  w.  subjv.,  727 

-uos,  in  gen.,  decl.  IV,  \2\.a 

urbs,  decl.,  107;  in  relations  of 
place,  432,  443,  485 

Urging,  vbs.  of,  w.  ut  cl.,  720. 1 

us,  final,  quantity  of,  965 

-us,  verbal  noun  suffix,  284.  b 

usus  est,  w.  abl.,  469.  b 

ut  (uti),  w.  optative  subjv.,  682 ;  in 
clauses  of  purpose,  713;  ut  non 
for  ne,  id.  <3; ;  ut  ne  for  ne,  id.  b ; 
w.  parenthetic  cl.,  714;  ut 
omitted,  720.  I.  ^,722;  after  vbs. 
of  fearing,  720.  II ;  w.  rel.  cl. 
of  cause,  730.  I ;  in  clauses  of 
result,  732,  736;  in  temporal 
clauses,  745,  746,  748 ;  in  gen- 
eral condition,  746,  800.^;  in 
concessive  clauses,  809 

ut  si,  w.  subjv.,  803 

utcumque,  in  temporal  cl.  expressing 
general  condition,  746,  800,  a 

uter,  decl,,  143,  198;  use,  567 

uter,  decl.,  102.^ 


INDEX 


409 


uterque,  use,  577 

iitilis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  877 

utinam.  w.  optative  subjv.,  681 ;  uti 

or  ut  used  instead,  682 
fltor,  w.  abl.,  469.  a  ;  w.  ace,  id.  N. 

2 ;  used  impersonally  in  pass. 

periphrastic,    860.  a ;    gerund 

and  gerundive  use  of,  880.  c.  N. 
utpote  qui,  730.  I 
utrum  ...  an,  627,  d 

V,  2.  ^;  sound,  16;  suffix  of  perf., 
223.  <z,^;  suppressed  in  perf., 
230.  a.  1,2;  omitted  in  perf. 
of  e6,  259.  b 

Value,  gen.  of  indefinite,  341 

Variable  nouns,  129-133;  hetero- 
clites,  1 30  ;  varying  in  gender, 
131,  132;  in  meaning,  133 

Variations  in  spelling,  1 2 

vas,  dccl.,  p.  46 

-ve,  608.  a 

v6-,  inseparable  prefix,  294.  b 

▼el,  w.  superl.,  509 ;  general  use, 
608;  intensive,  even,  id.  N.;  -ve 
for  vel,  id. «;  vel  .  .  .  vel,  610 

velut.  velut  si,  w.  subjv.,  803 

venum  dare,  venum  ire,  435 

Verb  list.  pp.  128-139 

Verbal  adjs.  in  -ax,  w.  gen.,  357,  N.  i 

Verbal  nouns,  w.  dat.,  383 

Verbal  nouns  and  adjs.,  20  5.  /z;  forma- 
tion, 236-240;  syntax,  826-882 
infs.,  827-845 ;  parts.,  846-869; 
gerund  and  gerundive,  8  70-880 
supine,  881,  882 

Verbs 

Forms :  inflection,  203 ;  voice, 
204 :  mood,  205  ;  verbal  nouns 
and  adjs.,  id.  a ;  tense,  206 ;  per- 


son, 207 ;  number,  208 ;  three 
tense  systems,  209;  four  con- 
jugations, 210;  prin.  parts, 
212-214;  pers,  endings,  215- 
218;  formation  of  vb.  stems, 
219-226;  formation  of  moods 
and  tenses,  227-235  ;  formation 
of  non-modal  vb.  forms,  236- 
240  ;  paradigms  of  regular  vbs., 
242-246;  deponents,  247;  semi- 
deponents,  248 ;  periphrastic 
forms,  249,  250  ;  irregular  vbs., 
251-261;  defect,  vbs.,  262- 
265;  impers.  vbs.,  266;  list  of 
vbs.,  267 ;  derivation  of  vbs., 
289,  290  ;  compound  vbs.,  294 
Syntax :  subj.  implied  in  ending. 
297.  a,  639 ;  rules  of  agreement, 
631-638;  vb.  omitted,  640; 
use  of  moods  and  tenses,  641- 
825,  886-909  (see  under  the 
names  of  the  moods) ;  followed 
by  complementary  inf.,  837;  by 
inf.  w.  subj.  ace,  839 ;  position 
of  vb.,  912,  926-928,  93  r, 
934.  a.  For  cases  w.  vbs.,  see 
under  the  names  of  the  cases 

Verbs  of  fullness,  w.  gen.,  349,  350  : 
w.  abl.,  469.  d 

Verbs  of  motion  w.  supine,  882.  I 

Verbs  of  remembering  and  forget- 
ting, constr.  after,  358 

Verbs  of  reminding,  constr.  after,  361 

vereor,  conj.,  247  ;  w.  subjv.,  720.  II 

yeritus,  as  pres.  part.,  848 

vfirO,  use,  613;  turn  vero,  iam  vero. 
id.  N. ;  in  answers,  629.  a ;  posi- 
tion, 924 

Verse,  defined,  970;  unit  of  measure. 
973  ;    names  of  verse,  975.  a  ; 


4IO 


INDEX 


iambic  and  trochaic,  976 ;  rules 
for  reading,  993,  994  ;  dactylic, 
995-1005 

Versification,  951-1005 

versus,  use,  276;  position,  id.  a,  925 

verto,  semi-deponent  in  comps.,  248.^2 

verum,  use,  612,  613 

vescor,  w.  abl.,  469.  a ;  w.  ace,  id. 
N.  2;  gerund  and  gerundive 
use  of,  880.  c.  N. 

vesperi,  loc,  488 

vestri,  as  obj.  gen.,  514;  w.  gerun- 
dive in  -i,  876 

vestrum,  as  partitive  gen.,  5 1 4 

veto,  w.  ace.  and  inf.,  720. 1,  a^  839.  c 

vetus,  decl,  148;  compar.,  155. « 

via,  as  abl.  of  manner,  461 

vicinus,  compar.,  160.  c 

vicis,  decl.,  p.  46 

video,  w.  pres.  part.,  864 

vigilia,  vigiliae,  133 

vir,  decl.,  85 

virus,  gender,  87 

vis,  decl.,  1 09 ;  vi,  abl.  of  manner,  461 

vo,  of  early  Latin,  changed  to  vu,  1 2..a 

Vocative  case,  defined,  74 

Forms:  yG.a^  voc.  of  nouns  in -us, 
decl.  II,  84. «;  of  filius,  etc.,  88. 
c;  of  deus,  88.  ^;  of  Panthus, 
89.  b\  of  Greek  nouns,  decl.  Ill, 
1 1 1 .  ^ ;  of  adjs.  in  -ius,  1 40.  a ; 
of  meus,  id.  b,  1 84.  b 
Syntax :  general  use,  321 ;  nom. 
used  as  voc,  322  ;  nom.  of  adj. 
agreeing  w.  voc,  323  ;  position 
of  voc,  930 

Voice,  204 ;  middle  voice,  406.  d,  ftn. 

Volitive  subjunctive,  classification, 
671;  hortatory,  672;  jussive, 
673-676;  concessive,  677;  de- 


liberative, 678;  volitive  subjv. 
in  ind.  disc,  887.  Ill 

V0I6  and  its  comps.,  conj.,  255  ;  w. 
inf.  or  subjv.,  720.  l.b\  w.  inf., 
837,  839.  b 

volucer,  decl.,  146.  b 

-volus,  adjs.  in,  compar.,  157 

vos,  decl.,  180  ;  vosmet,  id.  a 

vostrum,  vostri,  1 80.  d 

Vowels,  4 ;  sounds,  1 4  ;  quantity,  33, 
34,  953,  955  ;  weakening,  43- 
45  ;  contraction,  46 ;  dropping, 
47  ;  gradation  (ablaut),  56,  $7  \ 
quantity  of,  in  final  syllables, 
956-965 

vulgus,  gender,  ^y 

w,  not  in  Latin  alphabet,  2 

Want,  words  of,  w.  gen.,  349,  350; 

w.  abl.,  440 
Way  or  route  by  which,  abl.  of,  474 
Weakening  of  vowels,  43-45 
Whole,  gen.  of,  342 
Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  67.  a 
Wishing,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.,  720. 1 ; 

w.  inf.,  id.b,  837,  839.^ 
Women,  names  of,  135 
Words,  formation  of,  281  ff. ;  order 

of,  910  ff. 

X,  10;  sound,  16;  in  division  of 
syllables,  22.  a.  N. 

y,  of  Greek  origin,  2.^;  sound,  14 
Year,  Roman,  1006- 1008;  months, 

1009;  dates,  1010-1012 
Yes,  how  expressed  in  Latin,  629.  a 

z,  of  Greek  origin,  2.  c ;    sound,  1 6 
Zeugma,  950.  h 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


LATIN  FOR  BEGINNERS 

By  Benjamin  L.  D'Ooce,  Head  of  the  I^tin  Department  in  the 
Michigan  State  Normal  College 

lamo,  cloth,  348  pages,  illustrated,  with  four  colored  pbtes 
and  map  in  color 

The  first  pages  of  this  book  are  devoted  to  a  brief  discussion  of 
the  Latin  language,  its  history  and  its  educational  value. 

The  body  of  the  book  is  divided  into  three  parts : 

Part  I  is  devoted  to  Pronunciation,  Quantity,  Accent,  and  kindred 
introductory  essentials. 

Part  II  contains  the  study  of  forms  and  vocabulary,  together  with 
a  few  elementary  constructions,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  necessary 
to  the  translation  of  the  accompanying  exercises  and  selections  Un 
reading. 

Part  III  is  concerned  primarily  with  the  study  of  syntax.  It  con- 
tains also  a  large  amount  of  simple  reading  matter  and  a  review  of 
the  vocabulary  presented  in  Part  II.  The  last  three  lessons  are  a 
review  of  all  the  constructions  discussed  in  the  book. 

The  distinctive  features  of  the  book  are  as  follows : 

1.  It  is  characterized  throughout  by  fullness  of  statement  and  sim- 
plicity of  language,  bringing  it  well  within  the  grasp  of  immature  minds. 

2.  The  forms  are  presented  in  their  natural  sequence  and  closely 
related  subjects  are  not  separated. 

3.  The  vocabulary  is  limited  to  about  six  hundred  of  the  simplest 
and  commonest  words  in  the  language.  A  very  large  percentage  of 
them  occur  five  or  more  times  in  Caesar. 

4.  Every  tenth  lesson  contains  a  review  of  the  forms  and  vocabulary 
learned  in  the  preceding  nine. 

5.  The  mastery  of  forms  and  vocabulary  is  not  embarrassed  by  the 
premature  discussion  of  syntax.  Only  a  few  of  the  simplest  construc- 
tions are  introduced  until  the  forms  have  been  mastered  and  a  good 
vocabulary  established. 

6.  The  knowledge  of  English  grammar  is  not  taken  for  granted,  but 
English  constructions  are  reviewed  and  compared  or  contrasted  with 
the  Latin  usage.  By  this  correlation  English  and  Latin  are  made 
mutually  helpful  to  each  other. 

7.  Rare  forms  and  unusual  constructions  are  omitted,  that  more  em- 
phasis may  be  laid  upon  the  essentials. 

8.  Connected  I^tin  for  translation  is  introduced  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible moment,  and  is  made  a  prominent  feature  throughout. 

9.  In  the  last  lessons  sentences  and  idioms  from  Cxsar  are  intro- 
duced by  way  of  preparation  for  the  translation  of  that  author. 

10.  The  volume  is  handsomely  illustrated  with  scenes  from  the  life 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  some  of  the  pictures  being  specially  drawn  for 
this  work. 

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AND  SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  THIRD  BOOK  OF 
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State  Normal  College,  and  Frederick  C.  Eastman,  late 

Professor  of  Latin  in  the  State  University  of  Iowa 


xl  +  460  +  120  pages,  fully  illustrated 


By  virtue  of  its  convenient,  thorough,  and  economical 
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exposition  of  important  biographical,  geographical,  and  military 
facts,  and  the  life  of  Caesar  in  simple  Latin,  serving  as  a  review 
as  well  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Gallic  War,  add 
greatly  to  the  usefulness  of  the  book.  The  long  passages  of 
indirect  discourse  in  Books  I  and  II  of  the  Gallic  War,  which 
frequently  discourage  the  pupil's  interest,  are  given  in  direct 
form.  The  same  passages  are  later  given  in  their  unchanged 
form  for  purposes  of  comparison  and  for  use  in  more  strenu- 
ous courses.  In  addition  to  the  complete  body  of  textual  and 
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footnotes  for  aid  in  sight  reading.  A  distinctive  advantage  of 
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and  composition  for  the  second-year  work.  This  convenient 
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mar. The  volume  is  provided  with  a  list  giving  the  English 
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